Perceptions Of Inequality Research Articles

Effects of changes in perceived discrimination during BLM on the 2020 presidential election.

Few Americans change their choice of presidential candidate to a different political party from election to election. This study evaluates whether and in what direction the Black Lives Matter movement affected the small percentage of voters whose presidential votes changed from 2016 to 2020. Six waves of nationally representative probability surveys are used to establish that significant increases in the extent to which Americans perceived discrimination against Blacks and to which people favored more government efforts to address racial inequality both occurred in 2020. Using panel data, results suggest that increases in perceptions of racial inequality significantly increased the probability of vote switching toward the Democratic candidate. Attention to racial injustice also primed voters to rely more heavily on this issue when evaluating candidates.

Perceptions of inequality and social mobility in Mexico

Using new survey and experimental data, we investigate how perceptions about inequality and social mobility affect preferences for redistribution in Mexico. In addition to the perceived level of inequality typically measured in previous studies, we explore perceptions about who is rich and poor and their share of the population. The shape of perceived inequality that we find provides new insights as to why people tolerate large differences between the rich and the poor. We find that Mexicans generally perceive poverty and inequality not too far from measured levels, but they overestimate the income of the rich and their proportion of the population. Their perceptions of social mobility correctly estimate persistence rates at the top and bottom of the distribution, but they overestimate upward and downward mobility. Providing people with more information about observed income inequality and social mobility could be one way to encourage a demand for redistribution. However, randomly providing selected participants with this information has almost zero effect on their desired levels of equality, social mobility, and tax rates. Finally, we find that Mexicans want a progressive tax system in which the poor pay an average tax rate of 14% and the wealthy pay 41%, and that preference for a more progressive tax structure is negatively related to socioeconomic status.

Networking practices and gender inequities in academic medicine: Women's and men's perspectives.

SummaryBackgroundStudies of gender inequities in academic medicine suggest the negative impact of men's networking practices, but little is known about how they shape faculty experiences.MethodsIn this qualitative study, in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 52 women and 52 men academic medicine faculty members at 16 institutions across the US in 2019. Interviews explored participants’ experiences and perceptions of gender inequities in academic medicine, including perceptions of men's networking practices. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim, and transcripts were analyzed using a mixture of deductively and inductively generated codes.FindingsQualitative analysis of interview transcripts identified different dominant themes: (1) Women were often excluded from networking activities dominated by men, (2) Both women and men referred to men's networking practices in academic medicine, and believed they conferred benefits to members and excluded non-members from such benefits, (3) Participation in such networking activities yielded professional advantages, (4) Women made efforts to counteract their exclusion yet identified limits of those efforts.InterpretationThe data suggests that gender inequities in academic medicine might be associated with professional interactions that occur outside of the scope of professional work practices and in formal work sites. Additional research is needed to better understand practices such as informal networking activities and their impact in order to promote gender equity.

Income inequality and happiness: Which inequalities matter in China?

The effect of inequality on happiness should intrigue social scientists. Of the many dimensions of income inequality, we explore four, analysing a rich data set for China. Does actual or perceived inequality have a greater effect on happiness? We find that perceptions of inequality are the more important. How broad is the reference group with which people compare themselves? They report that it is narrow; and indeed narrowly defined inequality has the greater effect on happiness. Do perceptions of the degree of fairness of inequality matter? They do, as they ameliorate the adverse effect of inequality on happiness, especially for the poorest. Is it self-centred or community-based inequality which affects happiness? Both measures have significant effects, but in opposite directions. The research and policy implications are discussed.

School Discrimination, Discipline Inequities, and Adjustment Among Black Adolescent Girls and Boys: An Intersectionality-Informed Approach: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence.

Employing an intersectionality-informed approach, this investigation examines how school discrimination and disciplinary inequities shape Black adolescent boys' and girls' adjustment. One hundred and twenty-six adolescents (M = 11.88 years; SD = 1.02) residing in the Southeastern United States comprised the study sample. Results indicated that school discrimination was associated with greater depressive symptoms, lower academic persistence, and lower school satisfaction (at 1-year follow-up). In a counterintuitive pattern, adolescents' perceptions of disciplinary inequities were associated with greater persistence. This investigation provided partial support for gender variation. Perceptions of school disciplinary inequities were associated with lower educational aspirations for girls, whereas systemic school discrimination was more strongly associated with boys' educational aspirations. Overall, our study suggests that school-specific systemic discrimination and disciplinary practices shape Black adolescents' adjustment.

The Inequality Mirror: Using a Student Survey to Teach Social Stratification

Social inequality is a central theme in sociology study plans (both in research and education), but it is often one of the most difficult topics to teach. This article presents an innovative student-centered strategy for teaching social inequality that uses a survey to collect data on students’ socioeconomic characteristics and perceptions of inequality. To stimulate reflection and discussion on the social mechanisms that reproduce inequality, this information is subsequently presented to them in conjunction with a comparative analysis to general population data. The exercise seeks to make social inequality less abstract for students by involving them in the research process and by using data relative to their own lives and families. Ultimately, the strategy boosts students’ sociological imagination and their capacity for critical thinking by encouraging them to see the connections between individual biographies and broader social forces.

Dual pandemics of COVID‐19 and systemic racism: The roles of perceptions of inequities, civic values, and conservatism in mask‐wearing behavior

AbstractAmid unprecedented political polarization, the United States continues to grapple with the simultaneous crises of COVID‐19 and systemic racism. We examine potential predictors of COVID‐19 mask wearing at the intersection of these crises, with particular attention to the behavior of conservatives and young people, who have resisted compliance with efforts to contain the spread of COVID‐19. Specifically, we investigate perceptions of racial/ethnic inequities in the healthcare system and civic values as predictors of COVID‐19 mask‐wearing frequency and potential moderators of the relationship between political orientation and COVID‐19 mask‐wearing frequency. Diverse college students at a university in southern California participated in our longitudinal survey, which was initiated prior to the COVID‐19 pandemic (N = 431). We found that perceptions of inequities and civic values predicted mask wearing, whereas political conservatism was negatively related to mask wearing. Further, conservative participants were more likely to wear masks if they reported greater perceptions of inequities. Our results provide a foundation for future research that may inform targeted public health interventions aimed at encouraging responsible COVID‐19 behavior and fostering dialogue on systemic equities in a contentious political environment.

Cultural psychology of inequality: Current and future directions

The current special issue reports seven empirical articles on diverse areas of inequality, ranging from the perception of economic inequality (who are concerned, what cues people use to perceive inequality in everyday life), the educational origin of income inequality, to the role of inequality in luxury consumption, prosocial behaviour, life satisfaction, and beliefs in upward and downward economic mobility. We first comment on these articles, then briefly review the current state of the psychology of inequality and point to future directions. Finally, we point out that a cultural psychological perspective is missing from the extant literature on the psychology of inequality. Namely, it is important to document how current systems of inequality are maintained and transmitted across generations in specific sociocultural contexts.

Perception of economic inequality: concepts, associated factors and prospects of a burgeoning research agenda (Percepción de desigualdad económica: conceptos, factores asociados y proyecciones de una agenda creciente de investigación)

Perceptions of economic inequality have become a topic of growing interest in research from different social science disciplines. This article presents an up-to-date literature review of studies on this topic, stressing aspects related to its conceptualization and measurement, as well as psychosocial, socioeconomic and contextual factors associated with the perception of inequality. This review ends by pointing out some consequences of perception of inequality and identifying some pathways for future research agendas

Percepción de desigualdad económica en la vida cotidiana e ideología política: un estudio con jóvenes de España

In this study, we analyze the perception of economic inequality in everyday life in Spain based on political ideology. Using content analysis techniques, we processed 705 open-ended responses from 290 people and used network analysis to examine the relationships between the categories identified. We found that economic inequality is perceived primarily as social comparison and relative deprivation between individuals/groups. However, it is perceived more in terms of social justice when people are situated on the left (vs. the right) of the political spectrum. We discuss the perception of economic inequality as a multidimensional phenomenon situated in everyday life, which influences how we understand and react to social disparities.

Неравенство возможностей в российских регионах: объективные оценки и особенности восприятия населением

Income inequality driven by inequality of opportunity can lead to slower economic growth and social instability. The present paper analyses inequality of opportunity in three Russian regions, namely, Moscow, Stavropol krai and Chelyabinsk oblast. For each region, the contribution of unequal opportunities to income inequality (objective estimates), as well as the population perception of inequality of opportunity (subjective estimates) were examined. The existing estimates of inequality of opportunities in Russia at the regional and national levels were compared. Additionally, the correspondence between the subjective perception of inequality of opportunities by the population of the region and its objective estimates was considered. The research is based on the data of а sociological survey conducted by the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration in 2019. Methods ensuring the comparability of the obtained estimates with the results presented in the works of Russian and foreign scientists were utilised. The contribution of inequality of opportunity at the regional level ranges from 9 to 12 % for labour income and from 7 to 13 % for average per capita income; these values are considerably lower than the national estimates reported in earlier studies. This situation can be explained, among other things, by significant interregional inequality in Russia. The composite index of subjective inequality of opportunities, constructed in accordance with people’s perception of various success factors, shows that 14–20 % of the population in the above regions consider the problem of inequality of opportunity as important or very important, and 6–11 % as very important. The conducted regression analysis shows that higher levels of education and well-being correspond to less acute perception of inequality of opportunity. No significant regional differences were found, since the perception of inequality mostly depends on individual characteristics of the respondents rather than on their place of residence. The considerable difference between the objective estimates of regional inequality of opportunity and its perception is consistent with the results of international studies. For example, the perception of inequality of opportunity in Stavropol krai is higher than in other regions, while its objective estimate, on the contrary, is lower. To form a complete picture of inequality of opportunity in Russian regions, it is necessary to conduct a survey designed to be representative at the regional level.

Do multinational corporations pay their "Fair Share"?

<abstract> <p>Various Multinational Corporations minimize their effective global tax rate, and hence their contribution to public services, through Corporate Tax Avoidance. Taxpaying citizens, however, cannot reap these benefits of country-specific legislation under the international tax system, and frequently carry the majority of the tax burden. Hence, corporations are subject to accusations of not paying a "fair share". Based on equity theory, our paper analyses citizens' perception of fairness in regard to corporate taxation. By executing a mediation analysis, we determine which corporate tax rate is perceived as fair, mediating the relationship between equity theory determinants <italic>(individuals' tax system satisfaction, a social comparison with other entities, and cultural value-based cognition)</italic> and possible system-supportive or detrimental consequences. We confirm that a perception of inequity is prevalent among the 218 participants in our survey, and "fair burden-sharing" is perceived to be non-existent. We contribute to theory by classifying the social comparison determinant as most relevant for the fairness perceptions among individuals towards questionable business practices. Moreover, we emphasize that CTA needs to be considered a possible legitimacy threat for societal and institutional functioning since it may increase citizens' tax avoidant behavior, and jeopardizes social cohesion. However, the cultural values of power distance and masculinity were found to mitigate these generally detrimental consequences of CTA. Our practical and institutional implications put great emphasis on further promoting fairness within the international tax system since the recently suggested global corporate tax rate of 15% is still not considered as fair by our survey participants.</p> </abstract>

Social Perceptions of Gender Differences and the Subjective Significance of the Gender Inequality Issue

Gender inequality continues to reproduce itself in hidden and ambivalent forms and leads to invisible barriers in women's careers and lives. The authors were interested in how social perceptions of gender differences would relate to the maintenance of gender inequality in various spheres of life. The purpose of the presented research was to study social perceptions of gender differences in relation to the subjective significance of the gender inequality issue. The study was conducted via an online survey throughout February-September of 2019. The sample included 106 people aged 18 to 68 (M = 30.2, σ = 10.5), 49% of respondents were women. The authors have developed and tested a questionnaire assessing the adherence to ideas regarding evident gender differences in various spheres of life. The reliability of all scales of the questionnaire has been tested. Respondents also completed a questionnaire identifying their perceptions of gender inequality and shared their life experience with respect to this phenomenon in the form of free description. The following two latent factors reflecting different aspects of gender perceptions have been identified: "Career Inequality" and "Differences in Social Spheres". Indicators of the subjective significance of gender inequality (which include gender awareness, frequency of gender inequality witnessing, personal experience of gender discrimination and the emotional significance of this experience) were positively correlated with perceptions of career inequalities (these support ideas regarding gender differences when it comes to opportunities for professional realization) and negatively correlated with perceptions of differences within social spheres (these support ideas regarding the existence of essential gender differences within the family, politics and everyday life). Articulation of personal experiences of gender inequality is associated with social perceptions of the absence of essential gender differences in various social domains (egalitarianism) and sensitivity to gender inequality with regards to career opportunities.

Transcultural Validation of the Nordic Age Discrimination Scale for the Spanish-Speaking Working Populations.

Negative stereotypes about older workers can result in different types of age discrimination. The aim of this study was to run a transcultural adaptation and validation of the Nordic Age Discrimination Scale (NADS) into Spanish. Three independent samples of Chilean (N = 301), Colombian (N = 150), and Spanish (N = 209) workers over the age of 45, from different sectors and professional categories, answered a questionnaire including the NADS scale, measures of perceptions of inequality, workplace harassment and several scales related to outcome variables to test criterion and construct validity. The reliability index for the NADS was .85, a similar value for both Cronbach's alpha (α) and McDonald's omega (ω). CFA by country suggest good fit of this single-dimension structure in a final version of 5 items, and it presents scalar invariance; using the modification indices, partial invariance is achieved at the level of the variance of the errors. Both criterion and construct validity were verified, with strong evidence for criterion validity, and moderate results for construct validity. Therefore, the Spanish version of NADS had a single-dimension structure and adequate psychometric properties being a useful tool in measuring perceptions of age discrimination in different countries.

Cultural Impact on Fairness Perception of Inequality — a Study on People with Chinese Roots Living in Germany

Cultural Impact on Fairness Perception of Inequality — a Study on People with Chinese Roots Living in Germany

How Does Actual Inequality Shape People’s Perceptions of Inequality? A Class Perspective

While some scholars suggest that awareness of income inequality is strongest when the actual level of inequality is high, others find that individuals’ awareness of income inequality is largely unresponsive to actual inequality. In this article, we argue that individuals in different social class positions often respond to the actual levels of income inequality distinctively, and therefore a class perspective is essential in understanding how actual inequality and people’s perceptions of it are associated. Using data from the social inequality modules of the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP, 1992, 1999, and 2009) as well as the World Income Inequality Database ( https://www.wider.unu.edu/ ) and the World Inequality Database ( https://wid.world/ ), we consider how actual inequality interacts with social class to shape people’s perceptions of income inequality across 64 country-years between 1992 and 2009. We find that overall, perceptions of inequality are higher among the working class and lower among salariats. However, cross-nationally and over time, as the actual level of inequality increases, working classes become less critical toward inequality, whereas salariats become more critical. The actual level of inequality itself has no impact on people’s discontent toward it. This creates a counterbalancing effect that obscures the aggregate relationship between rising inequality and people’s perceptions of it.

“We’re All Equal” But Not Really: Perceptions of Racial Inequity Among Racial-Ethnic Minoritized Youth in the U.S

Racial-ethnic inequity is deeply entrenched in U.S. social systems, yet adolescents’ voices and understanding around inequity are not often directly examined. The current qualitative study uses focus group data from African American ( n = 21), Chinese- ( n = 17), Indian- ( n = 13), and Mexican- ( n = 17) origin adolescents ( Mage = 12.93 years; SD = 1.23; 51% boys) to provide insight on how youth navigate their attitudes and beliefs about these issues. Using a racial-ethnic socialization lens, we explore proximal (e.g., parents, peers, teachers) and distal (e.g., media, society) ways in which adolescents come to understand racial-ethnic inequity. Three themes characterized adolescents’ discussions. School diversity, of peers and of thought, and messages around egalitarianism were two prominent influences on their perceptions. A third theme related to perceptions of social hierarchies, which appeared to be shaped by stereotypes, peer interactions, and ideas about inequity itself. Emergent themes suggest that the school context is a particularly salient social setting that encompasses multiple sources of socialization (e.g., teachers, classmates, academics, climate), and parents, peers, and the media also play prominent roles.

Redistributive preferences: Why actual income is ultimately more important than perceived income

An emerging consensus claims that ‘subjective’ (mis)perceptions of income inequality better explain redistributive preferences than actual ‘objective’ conditions. In this article, we critically re-assess this view. We compare perceived and actual income positions as predictors for preferences for redistribution. We argue that perceived income is partly endogenous to actual income and its effect on preferences conditional on ideology. Using an original survey experiment from Switzerland, we show that the predictive power of perceived income is lower compared to actual income. Perceived income is only associated with redistribution preferences among centre-right respondents, but not among left-wing respondents. Furthermore, providing respondents with corrective information about their true position in the income hierarchy has no effect on redistribution preferences. These findings go against the new consensus about the superior explanatory power of subjective perceptions of income inequality. We argue instead that absolute objective conditions should be at the centre of explaining redistributive preferences.

Service, Activism, and Friendships in High School: A Longitudinal Social Network Analysis of Peer Influence and Critical Beliefs

Scholars acknowledge that friends shape youth civic engagement, but the relative contribution of peer influence and critical beliefs to civic behaviors has yet to be disaggregated. Informed by sociopolitical development and critical consciousness theories, the present study used longitudinal social network analysis to examine peer socialization and adolescents’ awareness of systemic inequities in relation to participation in service and activist activities at a high school serving primarily low-income Latinx youth. Students were surveyed in May 2019 and May 2020 (N = 354; 51% female; in 2019, Mage = 15.9, age range 14.4 to 18.5). The results yielded evidence of peer influence on service activities, but not activism or perceptions of inequities. In contrast, adolescents’ perception of inequities predicted their activist behavior, but not service, after controlling for network effects and individual covariates. The school provided scaffolding for service activities, but not activist activities, potentially explaining the salience of service participation in youth friendship networks.

Consequences of Economic Inequality for the Social and Political Vitality of Society: A Social Identity Analysis

Economic inequality has been found to have pernicious effects, reducing mental and physical health, decreasing societal cohesion, and fueling support for nativist parties and illiberal autocratic leaders. We start this review with an outline of what social identity theorizing offers to the study of inequality. We then articulate four hypotheses that can be derived from the social identity approach: the fit hypothesis, the wealth‐categorization hypothesis, the wealth‐stereotype hypothesis, and the sociostructural hypothesis. We review the empirical literature that tests these hypotheses by exploring the effect of economic inequality, measured objectively by metrics such as the Gini coefficient as well as subjectively in terms of perceptions of economic inequality, on wealth categorization (of others and the self), the desire for more wealth and status, intergroup hostility, attitudes towards immigrants, prosocial behavior, stereotyping, the wish for a strong leader, the endorsement of conspiracy theories, and collective action intentions. As we will show, this research suggests that economic inequality may have even more far‐reaching consequences than commonly believed. Indeed, investigating the effects of economic inequality on citizens' sociopolitical behaviors may be increasingly important in today's turbulent political and social landscape.