Global Form Perception Research Articles

Exposure to organic solvents used in dry cleaning reduces low and high level visual function.

PurposeTo investigate whether exposure to occupational levels of organic solvents in the dry cleaning industry is associated with neurotoxic symptoms and visual deficits in the perception of basic visual features such as luminance contrast and colour, higher level processing of global motion and form (Experiment 1), and cognitive function as measured in a visual search task (Experiment 2).MethodsThe Q16 neurotoxic questionnaire, a commonly used measure of neurotoxicity (by the World Health Organization), was administered to assess the neurotoxic status of a group of 33 dry cleaners exposed to occupational levels of organic solvents (OS) and 35 age-matched non dry-cleaners who had never worked in the dry cleaning industry. In Experiment 1, to assess visual function, contrast sensitivity, colour/hue discrimination (Munsell Hue 100 test), global motion and form thresholds were assessed using computerised psychophysical tests. Sensitivity to global motion or form structure was quantified by varying the pattern coherence of global dot motion (GDM) and Glass pattern (oriented dot pairs) respectively (i.e., the percentage of dots/dot pairs that contribute to the perception of global structure). In Experiment 2, a letter visual-search task was used to measure reaction times (as a function of the number of elements: 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 100) in both parallel and serial search conditions.ResultsDry cleaners exposed to organic solvents had significantly higher scores on the Q16 compared to non dry-cleaners indicating that dry cleaners experienced more neurotoxic symptoms on average. The contrast sensitivity function for dry cleaners was significantly lower at all spatial frequencies relative to non dry-cleaners, which is consistent with previous studies. Poorer colour discrimination performance was also noted in dry cleaners than non dry-cleaners, particularly along the blue/yellow axis. In a new finding, we report that global form and motion thresholds for dry cleaners were also significantly higher and almost double than that obtained from non dry-cleaners. However, reaction time performance on both parallel and serial visual search was not different between dry cleaners and non dry-cleaners.ConclusionsExposure to occupational levels of organic solvents is associated with neurotoxicity which is in turn associated with both low level deficits (such as the perception of contrast and discrimination of colour) and high level visual deficits such as the perception of global form and motion, but not visual search performance. The latter finding indicates that the deficits in visual function are unlikely to be due to changes in general cognitive performance.

The effect of simultaneous flickering light stimulation on global form and motion perception thresholds

The question regarding the exact function of the primary visual cortex (V1) in vision has been around ever since the description of residual vision after damage to this cortical area by Riddoch in 1917. In 2002, Schoenfeld and colleagues proposed that V1 can be saturated by flashes of light, by which the function of V1-bypassing visual pathways can be “unmasked”. The Schoenfeld group found that light flashes applied on stimulus onset led to the elevation of brightness increment detection thresholds, but left motion detection thresholds unaltered. Although the proposed method (i.e. the use of light flashes to induce refractoriness in V1) could be a simple, cheap and elegant way of exploring V1 functions, no study has followed up on this. Therefore it is not known if it works at all with other types of stimuli. For that reason, we decided to revisit the idea in a modified form. Global form and motion perception thresholds were assessed with static Glass pattern stimuli and random dot kinematograms, with and without 12Hz flickering light stimulation. Global motion thresholds were almost unaltered by flickering stimulation, while a significant threshold elevation was caused in the global form perception task. The strongest conclusion allowed by our data is that simultaneous flickering photostimulation elevates global form perception thresholds but not global motion perception thresholds. This is in some way related to the refractoriness generated in an unsatisfactorily defined part of V1. We suggest that this does not necessarily reflect the activity of V1-bypassing pathways, and propose that the application of light flashes is a method that deserves more attention in the exploration of the V1-dependent and independent elements of visual consciousness in human subjects.

The perception of Glass patterns by starlings (Sturnus vulgaris).

Glass patterns are structured dot stimuli used to investigate the visual perception of global form. Studies have demonstrated that humans and pigeons differ in their processing of circular versus linearly organized Glass patterns. To test whether this comparative difference is characteristic of birds as a phylogenetic class, we investigated for the first time how a passerine (starlings, Sturnus vulgaris) discriminated multiple Glass patterns from random-dot stimuli in a simultaneous discrimination. By examining acquisition, steady-state performance, and the effects of diminishing global coherence, it was found that the perception of Glass patterns by 5 starlings differed from human perception and corresponded to that established with pigeons. This suggests an important difference in how birds and primates are specialized in their processing of circular visual patterns, perhaps related to face perception, or in how these highly visual animals direct attention to the global and local components of spatially separated form stimuli.

Global processing in amblyopia: a review.

Amblyopia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of the visual system that is associated with disrupted binocular vision during early childhood. There is evidence that the effects of amblyopia extend beyond the primary visual cortex to regions of the dorsal and ventral extra-striate visual cortex involved in visual integration. Here, we review the current literature on global processing deficits in observers with either strabismic, anisometropic, or deprivation amblyopia. A range of global processing tasks have been used to investigate the extent of the cortical deficit in amblyopia including: global motion perception, global form perception, face perception, and biological motion. These tasks appear to be differentially affected by amblyopia. In general, observers with unilateral amblyopia appear to show deficits for local spatial processing and global tasks that require the segregation of signal from noise. In bilateral cases, the global processing deficits are exaggerated, and appear to extend to specialized perceptual systems such as those involved in face processing.

A Dorsal Visual Route Necessary for Global Form Perception: Evidence from Neuropsychological fMRI

Hierarchical models of visual processing assume that global pattern recognition is contingent on the progressive integration of local elements across larger spatial regions, operating from early through intermediate to higher-level cortical regions. Here, we present results from neuropsychological fMRI that refute such models. We report two patients, one with lesions to intermediate ventral regions and the other with damage around the intraparietal sulcus (IPS). The patient with ventral damage showed normal behavioral and BOLD responses to global Glass patterns. The patient with IPS damage was impaired in discriminating global patterns and showed a lack of significant responses to these patterns in intermediate visual regions spared by the lesion. However, this patient did show BOLD activity to translational patterns, where local element relations are important. These results suggest that activation of intermediate ventral regions is not necessary to code global patterns; instead global patterns are coded in a heterarchical fashion. High-level regions of dorsal cortex are necessary to generate global pattern coding in intermediate ventral regions; in contrast, local integration processes are not sufficient.

The Symmetry Detection Mechanisms are Color Selective

We investigated the role of color in the feature integration process for global form perception. For this, we used a 2AFC noise masking paradigm to measure the color selectivity of the symmetry detection mechanism. In each trial, a vertical symmetric target was randomly presented in one of the two intervals while a random dot control, in the other. The observers' task was to determine which interval contained the symmetric target. The image elements varied in chromaticity. The target density threshold was measured at various combinations of target and mask chromaticity. A noise mask with the same chromaticity as the target always produced the largest masking effect (threshold increment) on the detection on that target. The masking effect decreased as the difference in chromaticity between the target and mask increased. This suggests that the symmetry detection mechanisms are color selective and only extract local image features of a specific chromaticity.

Binocular pattern deprivation with delayed onset has impact on motion perception in adulthood

The quality of motion perception depends on visual input during early development. Even 1month of binocular deprivation (BD) from birth impairs motion coherence thresholds when tested in kittens; conversely BD with a 1-month delayed onset does not impair it (Mitchell et al., 2009). We showed that 6months of BD applied from birth induces a selective impairment in a Global Motion Detection task, but not in global form perception, when tested in adulthood (Burnat et al., 2002, 2005). In these animals cell counts of the retinal motion-sensitive alpha ganglion revealed a life-long increase in OFF-type ganglion cell (Burnat et al., 2012). Here we examined in adult cats the effect of BD on global motion perception using an array of tasks with gradually increasing perceptual difficulty. Two conditions of BD were applied: from birth, lasting for 1, 2, 4 or 6months, and with a delayed onset with first 2months of normal vision followed by 2months of BD. Cats deprived from birth for a 6-month period had Global Motion Detection impaired, as compared to the normal group. Velocity and low contrast-defined motion processing was impaired when BD was applied exclusively in months 3–4 of life. The cats deprived from birth for 1 or 2months were not impaired in any of the tested motion tasks. Motion coherence thresholds, when tested at the end of a long motion training were not affected by BD and did not differ from those obtained for the normal group. Impaired extraction of low contrast-defined motion signal was found in cats deprived solely in months 3–4 of life. Surprisingly, binocular pattern deprivation during the first 2months of life did not weaken motion sensitivity, revealing the occurrence of a critical period for motion perception later in development than previously suggested.

FMRI orientation decoding in V1 does not require global maps or globally coherent orientation stimuli.

The orientation of a large grating can be decoded from V1 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data, even at low resolution (3-mm isotropic voxels). This finding has suggested that columnar-level neuronal information might be accessible to fMRI at 3T. However, orientation decodability might alternatively arise from global orientation-preference maps. Such global maps across V1 could result from bottom-up processing, if the preferences of V1 neurons were biased toward particular orientations (e.g., radial from fixation, or cardinal, i.e., vertical or horizontal). Global maps could also arise from local recurrent or top-down processing, reflecting pre-attentive perceptual grouping, attention spreading, or predictive coding of global form. Here we investigate whether fMRI orientation decoding with 2-mm voxels requires (a) globally coherent orientation stimuli and/or (b) global-scale patterns of V1 activity. We used opposite-orientation gratings (balanced about the cardinal orientations) and spirals (balanced about the radial orientation), along with novel patch-swapped variants of these stimuli. The two stimuli of a patch-swapped pair have opposite orientations everywhere (like their globally coherent parent stimuli). However, the two stimuli appear globally similar, a patchwork of opposite orientations. We find that all stimulus pairs are robustly decodable, demonstrating that fMRI orientation decoding does not require globally coherent orientation stimuli. Furthermore, decoding remained robust after spatial high-pass filtering for all stimuli, showing that fine-grained components of the fMRI patterns reflect visual orientations. Consistent with previous studies, we found evidence for global radial and vertical preference maps in V1. However, these were weak or absent for patch-swapped stimuli, suggesting that global preference maps depend on globally coherent orientations and might arise through recurrent or top-down processes related to the perception of global form.

Local form-motion interactions influence global form perception

Local form-motion interactions influence global form perception

Sparing of sensitivity to biological motion but not of global motion after early visual deprivation

Patients deprived of visual experience during infancy by dense bilateral congenital cataracts later show marked deficits in the perception of global motion (dorsal visual stream) and global form (ventral visual stream). We expected that they would also show marked deficits in sensitivity to biological motion, which is normally processed in the superior temporal sulcus via input from both the dorsal and ventral streams. When tested on the same day for sensitivity to biological motion and to global motion at two speeds (4 and 18° s(-1)), patients, as expected, displayed a large deficit in processing global motion at both speeds. Surprisingly, they performed normally in discriminating biological motion from scrambled displays, tolerating as much noise as their age-matched controls. Networks bypassing damaged portions of the dorsal and the ventral streams must mediate the spared sensitivity to biological motion after early visual deprivation.

The role of shape-from-shading information in the perception of local and global form in Glass patterns

Three-dimensional (3D) shape can be inferred from the surface shading gradient of objects. Using Glass patterns, we investigated the importance of shape-from-shading information to the perception of global form. We examined whether different 3D shapes inferred from shading affect the extraction of local dipole orientations (local analysis) and the integration of dipoles in the perception of Glass structure (global analysis). In Experiment 1, we showed that incongruence in shading between partner dots prevents the recovery of the dipole orientation: partner dots with different 3D shapes are not paired to recover the dipole orientation. However, when incongruent "bipartite" partner dots (that have the same contrast polarity as shaded dots, but are two-dimensional) were used, the visual system was able to extract the local dipole orientation and detect the global pattern (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, we showed that additional noise dipoles affect the detection of Glass structure regardless of the 3D shape difference between signal and additional noise dipoles. This demonstrates that the visual system combines different oriented 3D dipoles to detect Glass structure. Our findings show that shape-from-shading information impacts on the ability to detect form structure but in different ways at local and global stages of processing.

Surround modulation of global form perception

We demonstrate a novel surround modulation of global form perception by using Glass patterns in a center-surround configuration. Glass patterns contain randomly distributed dot pairs, or dipoles, whose orientations are determined by a geometric transform. By integrating across dipoles, an observer can perceive a global structure in the image. We measured the coherence threshold, the minimum proportion of signal dots needed for an observer to detect the global form, at 75% accuracy. The coherence thresholds of the central target Glass patterns were measured either alone or with the presence of various Glass pattern surrounds. Concentric and spiral surrounds increased the coherence threshold for the concentric target compared with that measured for the target alone, while a radial surround had no effect. The coherence threshold for the radial pattern was elevated only by the spiral surround while the spiral and translational targets were not affected by any surrounds. The effect persisted when the center and the surround were segregated by a blank gap and peaked at an optimal gap width. Our results show that global form perception can be modulated by a surround, and this modulation depends on the shapes of the central target and the surround context.

MEG Responses to the Perception of Global Structure within Glass Patterns

BackgroundThe perception of global form requires integration of local visual cues across space and is the foundation for object recognition. Here we used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to study the location and time course of neuronal activity associated with the perception of global structure from local image features. To minimize neuronal activity to low-level stimulus properties, such as luminance and contrast, the local image features were held constant during all phases of the MEG recording. This allowed us to assess the relative importance of striate (V1) versus extrastriate cortex in global form perception.Methodology/Principal FindingsStimuli were horizontal, rotational and radial Glass patterns. Glass patterns without coherent structure were viewed during the baseline period to ensure neuronal responses reflected perception of structure and not changes in local image features. The spatial distribution of task-related changes in source power was mapped using Synthetic Aperture Magnetometry (SAM), and the time course of activity within areas of maximal power change was determined by calculating time-frequency plots using a Hilbert transform. For six out of eight observers, passive viewing of global structure was associated with a reduction in 10–20 Hz cortical oscillatory power within extrastriate occipital cortex. The location of greatest power change was the same for each pattern type, being close to or within visual area V3a. No peaks of activity were observed in area V1. Time-frequency analyses indicated that neural activity was least for horizontal patterns.ConclusionsWe conclude: (i) visual area V3a is involved in the analysis of global form; (ii) the neural signature for perception of structure, as assessed using MEG, is a reduction in 10–20 Hz oscillatory power; (iii) different neural processes may underlie the perception of horizontal as opposed to radial or rotational structure; and (iv) area V1 is not strongly activated by global form in Glass patterns.

Scale-dependent loss of global form perception in strabismic amblyopia

Amblyopic humans are known to have a range of spatial vision abnormalities. Prior studies have documented amblyopic deficits in global form perception but have typically used only one set of stimulus parameters. Our aim in this study was to examine the extent and nature of global form perception deficits in strabismic amblyopia using a range of spatial scales and pattern types. Glass patterns are random dot stimuli in which the local orientations of paired dots must be integrated over space to yield a global form percept. We measured coherence thresholds for discrimination of pattern structure in translational (linear) and concentric Glass patterns at three spatial scales in two control and six amblyopic observers. We found that sensitivity to Glass patterns depended on both spatial scale and pattern type in all observers. Participants with a history of abnormal early visual experience showed greater interocular threshold difference when the discrimination was based on translational patterns than when it was based on concentric patterns, and the degree of amblyopic loss was greatest at fine spatial scale. Our results show that the nature and extent of global form vision deficits vary substantially with stimulus parameters and are greatest at fine spatial scales.

Backward and forward visual masking in schizophrenia and its relation to global motion and global form perception

Whilst visual backward masking deficits in schizophrenia have been reliably reported and may reveal magnocellular dysfunction, forward masking, which may rely more heavily on the parvocellular system, has been under investigated. In a group of 64 schizophrenia patients and 65 matched controls we undertook a visual masking paradigm containing both conditions, together with tests of ‘global motion’ and ‘global form’ perception, two ‘down-stream’ visual tasks reflecting later processing linked to magnocellular and parvocellular function respectively. In the patient group, a significant but small deficit on the masking task, equivalent across forward and backward conditions was seen. Correlations between the masking and motion/form tasks supported the predominant theoretical framework describing the neural processes involved in masking. Performance on the motion and form tasks was differentiated by a trend-level motion processing deficit but near-normal form processing. The results suggest an ‘early visual’ processing deficit in both magno- and parvocellular systems but one which is only transferred to ‘down-stream’ processing areas with predominantly magnocellular input.

Perception of shapes targeting local and global processes in autism spectrum disorders

Several researchers have found evidence for impaired global processing in the dorsal visual stream in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). However, support for a similar pattern of visual processing in the ventral visual stream is less consistent. Critical to resolving the inconsistency is the assessment of local and global form processing ability. Within the visual domain, radial frequency (RF) patterns - shapes formed by sinusoidally varying the radius of a circle to add 'bumps' of a certain number to a circle - can be used to examine local and global form perception. Typically developing children and children with an ASD discriminated between circles and RF patterns that are processed either locally (RF24) or globally (RF3). Children with an ASD required greater shape deformation to identify RF3 shapes compared to typically developing children, consistent with difficulty in global processing in the ventral stream. No group difference was observed for RF24 shapes, suggesting intact local ventral-stream processing. These outcomes support the position that a deficit in global visual processing is present in ASDs, consistent with the notion of Weak Central Coherence.

Global visual processing in macaques studied using Kanizsa illusory shapes

The ability to extract form information from a visual scene, for object recognition or figure-ground segregation, is a fundamental visual system function. Many studies of nonhuman primates have addressed the neural mechanisms involved in global form processing, but few have sought to demonstrate this ability behaviorally. In this study, we probed global visual processing in macaque monkeys (Macaca nemestrina) using classical Kanizsa illusory shapes as an assay of global form perception. We trained three monkeys on a "similarity match-to-sample" form discrimination task, first with complete forms embedded in fields of noncontour-inducing "pacman" elements. We then tested them with classic Kanizsa illusory shapes embedded in fields of randomly oriented elements. Two of the three subjects reached our criterion performance level of 80% correct or better on four of five illusory test conditions, demonstrating clear evidence of Kanizsa illusory form perception; the third subject mastered three of five conditions. Performance limits for illusory form discrimination were obtained by manipulating support ratio and by measuring threshold for discriminating "fat" and "thin" illusory squares. Our results indicate that macaque monkeys are capable of global form processing similarly to humans and that the perceptual mechanisms for "filling-in" contour gaps exist in macaques as they do in humans.

Moving Glass Patterns: Asymmetric Interaction between Motion and form

The perceived motion direction of a moving Glass pattern is influenced by the orientation of the dot pairs (dipoles) that generate the pattern (Krekelberg et al, 2003 Nature 424 674-677; Ross, 2004 Vision Research 44 441-448). Here, we investigate how the motion vector and the dipole orientation of moving Glass patterns influence the perceived orientation of each. We employed 1 s movie presentations of sequences of linear Glass patterns, each consisting of 200 dot pairs. Signal pairs, aligned in a common orientation, moved in a common direction. The observer's task was to indicate either the perceived direction of motion, or the perceived dipole orientation of Glass patterns that consisted of either same-polarity dipoles, or opposite-polarity dipoles. Perceived orientation or motion direction was measured as a function of the angular difference between the orientation and the motion direction of the dipoles. We found that the apparent global direction of motion was attracted by approximately 4 degrees towards the dipole orientation for small (15 degrees, 23 degrees) angular differences between dipole motion-direction and dipole orientation, regardless of dipole polarity. However, under the same stimulus conditions, the apparent global orientation was much less affected by the direction of motion, suggesting that motion and form interact asymmetrically Global form influences global motion-direction perception more powerfully than global motion influences global form perception.

Selective impairment in visual perception of biological motion in obsessive-compulsive disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with a variety of well-documented cognitive deficits such as deficits in memory and executive functioning, but little is known about basic perceptual concomitants of OCD. This study investigated global, configural processing in OCD using dynamic (moving) and static stimuli with minimal demands on cognitive function. Twenty OCD patients and 16 age- and education-matched healthy control subjects were tested on four perceptual tasks: two motion tasks involved detection and discrimination of human activity portrayed by point-light animations ("biological" motion). The other two tasks involved detection of coherent, translational motion defined by random-dot cinematograms and detection of static global shape defined by spatially distributed contours. OCD patients exhibited impaired performance on biological motion tasks; in contrast, their performance on tasks of coherent motion detection and global form perception were comparable to those of healthy controls. These results indicate that OCD patients have a specific deficit in perceiving biological motion signals, whereas their perception of non-biological coherent motion and static global shape is intact. Because efficient social interactions depend on accurate and rapid perception of subtle socially relevant cues, deficits in biological motion perception may compromise social functioning in people with OCD.

Vernier Acuity Is Normal in Migraine, whereas Global Form and Global Motion Perception Are Not

A recent study has demonstrated that some people with migraine display impairments of intermediate stages of motion and form processing. Deficits were identified by using tasks that required that local stimulus attributes be integrated into global percepts. Neurons capable of global processing of form and motion are known to be present in extrastriate cortical areas V4 and V5, respectively. It is not clear from the literature whether deficits of global processing in migraineurs are likely to arise from reduced input to extrastriate cortex from primary visual cortex (V1). The purpose of the study was to compare presumed measures of V1 performance (vernier acuity) to measures of global form and motion perception in migraineurs. Thirty migraineurs (17 with aura, and 13 without) and 20 age-matched nonheadache control subjects participated. Intermediate level motion and form perceptions were measured using global dot motion stimuli and Glass patterns, respectively. Vernier stimuli were broad vertical bars composed of small dot elements. Both a static luminance stimulus and a motion defined form vernier stimulus were used. Mean migraine and control group performance were not significantly different for either vernier task (static: t(48)=0.39, P=0.70; motion: t(48)=0.29, P=0.77). Mean migraine group performance was significantly worse than in control subjects for both the global form (t(48)=2.06, P=0.04) and global motion (t(48)=2.87, P<0.01) tasks. On average, migraineurs demonstrate abnormalities of intermediate stages of both motion and form processing. These abnormalities do not appear to arise from dropout of performance at V1, as vernier acuity was normal in the same individuals.