Percentage Of Twins Research Articles

Correlation between BMPR1B Gene Polymorphism and some Reproductive Traits in Awassi Sheep

The (BMPR-1B) gene is one of the main genes for ewe fertility. This study was conducted to check the association between BMPR-IB gene polymorphisms and some traits of Awassi. This study was made in Anbar Governorate - (Agricultural Research Department) Al-Dawar. Date of experience collected from 34 ewes at the age of 4-6 years. Next, DNA was extracted and a PCR reaction was performed to amplify blood samples taken from the ewes to confirm the presence of the BMPR1B gene. The sequence was determined using Sanger sequencing technology. The data were then analyzed and compared between sample sequences to determine SNPs, genotype frequencies, allele frequencies, and their association with reproductive and growth traits. The results showed mutations in the heteroplasmy site rs410310346 (T>C) and rs592447725 (G>A). The results indicated that the TC genotype at the mutation site rs410310346 (T>C) was significantly superior (P≤0.05) in ewes whose rates of fertility and body length were higher compared to the CC genotype. The genotypes haven’t got an important effect on the proportion of twins, fertility rate, chest circumference, front height, ewe birth weight, and lamb weight at birth. The relationship of genotype GG and GA at the mutation site rs592447725 (G > A) showed a very significant effect (P≤0.01) on the percentage fertility rate and a noteworthy result (P≤0.05) on body length, height at the front and birth weight of lambs, but there isn’t a big impact. In the percentage of twins, fertility rate, chest circumference, and birth weight of ewes. Therefore, the effect of the BMPR1B gene can be used as a genetic marker to select ewes with good genotypes to improve herd performance.

Effect of N-Acetyl Cysteine, Selenium and Zinc as Oral Nutritional Supplement on Reproductive Performance in Local Iraqi Ewes.

The study aimed to investigate the effect of the administration N-acytl cysteine to ewes with or without selenium and zinc on reproductive performance and the level of estrogen and progesterone hormones for local ewes. 24 local ewes were used, 3-5 of age and weighing 45-55 kg. They were randomly distributed to 4 groups, 6 ewes for each one. All ewes were treated six days before pushing the vaginal sponges and continued for 45 days. The Group 1 (T1) was treated with (10 mg N-acytl cysteine/kg body weight), Group 2 (T2) was treated with (10 mg N-acytl cysteine/kg body weight + 0.03 mg selenium/kg body weight), Group 3 (T3) was treated with (10 mg N-acytl cysteine/ kg of body weight + 0.03 mg zinc/kg of body weight) while the Group 4 (T4) was left without treatment (control group). The results showed a significant increased (p≤0.05) of treatment (T1) at the time of first estrus, followed by the control treatment, then treatment (T2, T3). Results recorded a significant increased (p≤0.05) of T1, T3 and T2 respectively in estrus rate. Furthermore, the treated group showed a significant increased (p≤0.05) compared with the control group in the fertilization %pregnancy, the percentage of twins, births and the number of births. The supplement N-acetyl cysteine with selenium or zinc led to an improvement in reproductive performance

Effect of Fed Omega-3 Addition on Milk Production and Some Reproductive Standards in Cypriot Goats

This study was conducted at the Ruminant Research Station of the Agricultural Research Department/ Ministry of Agriculture, which is located in Abu Ghraib area, for the period from 12 April 2018 to 26 December 2018. This experiment included 27 Cypriot goats with a weight of 34-48 kg. They were randomly distributed into three groups of equal number (Nine goat in each group). The first group (T1) control group (T2) the second group was given 20 ml / Omega -3 per animal and the third group (T3) was given 40 ml / Omega -3 per animal. The results showed that there was a proper effect of treatment with omega-3 on milk production of Cypriot goats during October, November and December. The third treatment was properly superior (P≤0.05) at a rate of 1.62 ± 52.30, 1.76 ± 36.00 and 2.00 ± 33.71 kg for the first treatment (Control), which that recorded during the same months 1.80 ± 28.00, 1.10 ± 19.44 and 1.68 ± 18.90 kg, respectively. The results of the current study also indicate a significant increased (P≤0.05) for the third treatment was given 40 ml omega-3 in the fertility rate of Cypriot goats that reached 80% compared to the control group whose fertility rate reached 60%, the results showed that the percentage of fertility increased significantly (P≤0.05) for goats in the third group to 90%, while the group T2 and T1 scored 70%, also the percentage of births improved significantly (P≤0.01) among the goats in the third group that were given 40 ml of omega-3 by a rate of 90 % Compared to the group T1 and T2 as it reached 60%. The results showed no significant effect of omega-3 on the percentage of twins, as it reached group T1 and T2 as it reached 35% compared to group T3 33%. The results indicated a significant decrease on a silent estrus percentage for goats in the third group T3 when given 40 ml of omega-3 to 20% compared to the group T2 and T1 at a rate of 40%. The results also showed a significant improvement in the number of births per abdomen among goats of the third group, which gave 40 ml of omega-3 as the rate was 1.20 compared to the groups T1 and T2 as they reached 0.70 and 1.0, respectively. The omega-3 administration of goats was not reported to have any significant effect on the pregnancy duration of three groups, it appears through the results of the study, that is giving omega-3 has significantly increased dramatically the reproductive performance and a lesser degree the productive performance of Cypriot goats in Iraq.

The efficiency of obtaining twins by replanting embryos in preinseminated animals

The purpose of our work was to determine the effectiveness of using of dairy cows as recipients for obtaining twin calves of the meat direction of produc-tivity. The study was conducted in LLC "Agricultural enterprise" Nikolaevskoe", Lugovets village, Mglinsky district. For the experiment cows and first-calf heifers (n=50) were selected and divided into three groups according to the breed princi-ple. In group I (n=22) Swiss breed animals were selected, in group II (n=13) - black-and-white cows, in group III (n=15) - crossbred cattle. All animals selected for the experiment were previously subjected to hormonal stimulation in order to synchronize the sexual cycles. The synchronization scheme included the injection of GnRh analogues at a dose of 10 ml IM and PgF2a cloprostenol at a dose of 500 mg per animal. With the manifestation of symptoms of estrus, all animals were arti-ficially inseminated with the sexed semen of a Belgian blue bull. On the seventh day of the sexual cycle, all inseminated animals had the procedure of replanting a frozen-thawed embryo into the contralateral uterine horn relative to the corpus lu-teum diagnosed on the ovary. To avoid freemartinism of heifers, the recipients were implanted with sexed embryos which were previously obtained from donor cows of the Hereford breed. During the study, it was found that the recipients in groups I, II and III had twins in 45.46% (10/22), 15.39% (2/13) and 20.0% (3/15) cases of joint application of biotechnological methods. The birth of one transplant calf was recorded in group I in 18.18% (4/22) of cows, in group II - 23.08% (3/13) and in group III - 33.33% (5/15) respectively. The birth of one calf obtained from artificial insemination was noted in group I in 31.82% (7/22) of animals, in group II - 38.46% (5/13) and in group III - 40.0% (6/15) respectively. The rest of the cows had no calves. Thus, it was found that the percentage of twins in the progeny was significantly higher (P?0.01) in group I compared with groups II and III. In groups I, II and III the total yield of calves was 140.92% (31/22), 92.32% (12/13) and 113.33% (17/15), respectively.

Influence of some factors on fertility and weight if sheep and body weight development of lambs

The research included a total of 921 lambs, 474 ewes and 8 sjenicke sheep rams from 4 different farms. The aim of the research was to examine the influence of the farm, cultivation technology and the influence of rams within the farm on production indicators. Statistical analysis showed that the body weight of lambs at birth ranged from 3.37 to 4.03 kg (average 3.68 kg), at 30 days from 11.51 to 12.41 kg (average 12.07 kg) and from 90 days from 27.82 to 29 kg (average 28.65 kg). A statistically highly significant influence of the farm was determined (P<0.01) on the body weight of lambs in all three control periods, as well as on the body weight of sheep and on the fertility of sheep. The influence of the ram on the body weight of the lambs at birth was statistically very significant within the farm (P<0.01). When it comes to the percentage share of birth type by farm, farm 1 had the most singletons (59.13%) both within the farm and in comparison between other farms, while there were fewer twins (40.87%), and triplets were not identified. On the other farms, the percentage of twins was the highest, and triplets were also present, while on farm 4 there were also quadruplets, lambs born as quadruplets (3.28%).

Gestational losses after innovating with two embryos in a fixed-time embryo transfer program

The aim of this study was to quantify the pregnancy rate after implantation of two embryos after FTET protocols, as well as to monitor pregnancy losses until parturition, evaluating, mainly, if this strategy results in more number of animals born. Therefore, 423 multiparous recipients were selected, standardized in terms of body score, who had high-quality corpora lutea. Animals were randomly divided into two groups according to one or two embryos transferred (1 embryo = Control, n = 237; 2 embryos = Group 1, n = 186). All recipients received the same hormonal treatment, which consisted of administering, on Day 0, 2 mL of estradiol benzoate (Gonadiol, ZOETIS) + 1.9 g multidose 1st use progesterone implant (CIDR, ZOETIS); on Day 8 the implants were removed + injected 0.4 mL of estradiol cypionate (E.C.P, ZOETIS) + 1.5 mL of eCG (Novormon, ZOETIS) + 1 mL of dinoprost tromethamine (Lutalyse, ZOETIS). The animals were evaluated by ultrasonography at 30 and 60 days after embryo transfer, to diagnose the success rate and embryo losses during this period. Furthermore, information was collected on births, length of gestation, number of twin births, number of childbirth assistance and the weight of the calves. The results showed that Group 1 had better success than the Control, with higher conception rates at 30 days (68.3% vs. 53.2%, P<0.001) and at 60 days (62.9% vs. 52.3%; P<0 .05). The number of animals born was also higher for Group 1 (53.3% vs. 43.3%, P<0.01). The percentage of twins born in Group 1 was 17.9%, and the animals had lower weight compared to the Control (34.29 + 7.36 vs 37.63 + 5.73, P<0.05). The length of pregnancy and the number of assistances were similar between groups. In conclusion, the strategy adopted in this experiment suggests a considerable increase in the calf birth rate, but losses during pregnancy and their mechanisms need to be elucidated.

Feeding Twins with Human Milk and Factors Associated with Its Duration: A Qualitative and Quantitative Study in Southern Italy.

Background: Over the past year, there has been a rise in twin births. The current scientific consensus recommended breast-feed milk for all newborns for at least 6 months. They stated that it is possible to meet the nutritional needs of two or more newborns with only one mother’s milk. More information would be desirable about the factors that influence or lead to the initiation and interruption of breastfeeding. The quality of the evidence available from multiple studies has been inconclusive and therefore led to controversial interpretations and practices. Aims: The first aim of this study was to analyze the extent of the feeding of multiples with breast milk in the experience of our clinical unit in terms of incidence and duration. The second objective was to evaluate the correlation between maternal, perinatal and neonatal variables with breast milk feeding rates and duration. Methods: The study was conducted between 2015 and 2020, in a NICU in Southern Italy (San Giovanni Rotondo, Foggia). Sixty-one women who have given birth to multiples were enrolled into the study. Newborn data were retrospectively collected by informatic database and breastfeeding information were collected by a questionnaire. Results: In our centre, the percentage of twins out of the total number of births over the years has almost doubled from 1.28% in 2015 to 2.48% in 2020 and the 88% of twins are premature. 18.1% received breast milk for more than 6 months and 6.3% received it for more than 12 months. Infants of lower gestational age and weight, born to multiparous, more mature and medium-high schooling mothers received breast milk for a longer period. 35% of women explained that the interruption of breastfeeding was due to the insufficient milk production and 41% to the stress and difficulties in managing the twins. Qualitative analysis of maternal narrative revealed, for many of them, the awareness of the importance of breastfeeding and the efforts made to try to give breast milk, but also fears about the quantity of milk and satiety of their children. Conclusions: It is important to identify the factors both favoring and obstructing maternal milk feeding of multiples and it would be desirable the activation of a network of training and support for mothers after discharge, with particular regard to the categories found to be less inclined.

Binomial outcomes in dataset with some clusters of size two: can the dependence of twins be accounted for? A simulation study comparing the reliability of statistical methods based on a dataset of preterm infants

BackgroundThe analysis of perinatal outcomes often involves datasets with some multiple births. These are datasets mostly formed of independent observations and a limited number of clusters of size two (twins) and maybe of size three or more. This non-independence needs to be accounted for in the statistical analysis. Using simulated data based on a dataset of preterm infants we have previously investigated the performance of several approaches to the analysis of continuous outcomes in the presence of some clusters of size two. Mixed models have been developed for binomial outcomes but very little is known about their reliability when only a limited number of small clusters are present.MethodsUsing simulated data based on a dataset of preterm infants we investigated the performance of several approaches to the analysis of binomial outcomes in the presence of some clusters of size two. Logistic models, several methods of estimation for the logistic random intercept models and generalised estimating equations were compared.ResultsThe presence of even a small percentage of twins means that a logistic regression model will underestimate all parameters but a logistic random intercept model fails to estimate the correlation between siblings if the percentage of twins is too small and will provide similar estimates to logistic regression. The method which seems to provide the best balance between estimation of the standard error and the parameter for any percentage of twins is the generalised estimating equations.ConclusionsThis study has shown that the number of covariates or the level two variance do not necessarily affect the performance of the various methods used to analyse datasets containing twins but when the percentage of small clusters is too small, mixed models cannot capture the dependence between siblings.

Results of the biological test of simmental bulls in central Serbia

Exceptionally important aspect in cattle production, from the aspect of production and economy, is ensuring normal and regular fertility. Every cattle breeder wants to have high-yielding animals which at the same time have good fertility. In proper cattle breeding this means that from each cow during single year one healthy calf is obtained. Use of artificial insemination has enabled that one breeding male is used as sire for several tens of thousands of progeny, however, there is always the risk that sires could be carriers of lethal and semi-lethal genes, which can cause huge losses of calves. In order to bring these undesirable occurrences to a minimum, so called bilogical test is included in the breeding and selection activities, i.e. bulls are tested through their progeny for presence of difficult calving (dystocia) abd calf losses caused by genetic anomalies. In Republic of Serbia, this test is carried out on ehtire Simmental population in an exchange of data produced by primary breeding organizations. Per each tested bull, it is necessary to have data on minimum 50 randomly selected calves. Calves are examined visually 65 days after the birth, at the latest. In the present study, the results of the biological testing of 35 Simmental bulls, sires of total 3572 calves on the territory of Central Serbia, in the period 2008-2009, are used. The effect of sires on parameters of biological test were studied: body mass of calves at birth, calf score and calving score. Also, bulls were ranked based on said parameters, male/female calves ratio and percentage of twins and still-born calves for each bull individually were determined. After the rank of bulls was established, the correlation between the rank and studied fertility traits was determined. Correlations were expressed using the Spearman coefficient. Research results show that the effect of bulls was very high p<0,001 on all three parameters of the biological test, and also that the percentage of still born calves for all bulls was within limits, with the exception of bulls Zahlo (HB 1497) and Woz (HB 1433) where it was above 5.

Estimation of milk production of goats affected by number of offspring

The goat sector is the smallest among the domestic animals sectors in Hungary. The estimated total population is approximately 30 thousand does. The majority of that is local goat with a low milk production. In the study of Mourad (1992) the percentage of twins was higher than singles or triplets, and the first two months of lactation was affected significantly by litter size. Does which gave birth to multiple kids produced significantly more milk over lactation compared to those ones that produced singles (Goonewardene et al., 1999). In this study the effect of number of offspring on milk production was investigated using 58 kids of 30 Hungarian Milking goats from one private farm in Hungary.

Validation of Birth and Birth Outcome Information in the German Pharmacoepidemiological Research Database (GePaRD)

Background: Any use of data not primarily collected for research purposes requires their prior validation. A large pharmacoepidemiological database was created in Germany, which contains records of ˜14 mill insurants from four statutory health insurances covering whole Germany (17% of the German population). The aim of the current analysis was to validate the birth and birth outcome information in GePaRD by comparing it to official statistics. Methods: We estimated the crude birth rate (number of newborns per 100,000 population), the fertility rate (number of newborns per 1,000 women in reproductive age range (15–44)), the percentage of twins and higher order births and percentage of stillbirths stratified by federal state in 2004 to 2006. We compared our results with the data from birth registration from federal health monitoring. Results: The crude birth rate agreed with the official statistics within 2% (2004: 873 vs. 855, 2005: 834 vs. 832 and 2006: 806 vs. 817). The fertility rate showed an average underestimation of 9% (2004: 39 vs. 42, 2005: 38 vs. 41 and 2006: 38 vs. 41), in line with the slight underrepresentation of younger women in reproductive age in the GePaRD compared to the German population. As expected, regional variation in fertility indicators from official statistics in Germany was better reproduced by the database estimates for the fertility rate than for crude birth rate. Twins and higher order births were recorded in 1.5% of all births in our database and in 1.6% in the official statistics for the years 2004–2006. During the same time period, 3.3% of births in the database were stillbirths, in agreement with the official statistics where 3.6% of the deliveries were stillbirths. Conclusion: Our results show a good agreement of the database with official statistics for Germany for birth and birth outcomes providing a basis of further evaluation.

Gestational weight gain among US women who deliver twins, 2001-2006

Current guidelines recommend a gestational weight gain of 35-45 pounds for a twin pregnancy, but actual levels of weight gain during pregnancy among US women delivering twins are currently unknown. We assessed gestational weight gain among 6345 US women who delivered twins from 2001 to 2006, using data collected from 28 states and New York City participating in a population-based surveillance system (PRAMS). Approximately one-third of mothers who delivered twins gained 45 pounds or more during pregnancy. Weight gains were higher among women with lower prepregnancy body mass indexes. The percentage of twins with a normal birthweight increased with increasing gestational weight gains, except among obese women with the highest level of gain (>/= 65 pounds). A notable percentage of US women who deliver twins gain above the current guidelines. The benefits of high gestational weight gain during twin pregnancies need to be balanced against an increased risk of maternal weight retention and later obesity.

Evaluation of 2407 fetuses in a Turkish population

Congenital anomalies and intrauterine fetal death (IUFD) are frequent problems in pregnancies. Detection of the etiology is important for genetic counseling, and presenting the geographic distribution of the causes of disorders is necessary for a national policy on precautions. Here, we report the findings of terminated fetuses due to IUFD and congenital anomalies in Turkish population. Physical examinations of fetuses and genetic evaluations of families were done. X-ray studies and autopsy were done in the event of necessity. Findings of these studies were combined with prenatal ultrasound results. All cases were classified according to ICD-10. The number of fetuses examined was 2407. Out of these, 1268 fetuses had congenital anomalies. Neurologic anomalies and musculoskeletal system malformations were the most frequent disorders. Specific diagnoses were possible in 64% of all multiple malformation syndromes. Abnormal findings were detected in 18.8% of IUFD fetuses. Nine percent had congenital anomalies and 5.2% had cord complications. The percentage of twins and triplets was 7.5% and 13% of them had anomalies. Postmortem evaluation is useful to detect findings necessary for genetic counseling. Our protocol is effective especially in fetuses with congenital anomalies but it can detect only some of the fetal reasons in IUFD cases. A more detailed protocol is needed to investigate IUFD cases.

Haemoglobin differences at birth in monochorionic twins without chronic twin‐to‐twin transfusion syndrome

To determine the haemoglobin (Hb) differences at birth in monochorionic (MC) twins without chronic twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS) in relation to birth order and placental vascular anatomy. All consecutive cases of MC twins without chronic TTTS and dichorionic (DC) twins delivered at our centre and admitted to our neonatal nursery between June 2002 and December 2004 were included in our study. We analysed Hb differences at birth and on day 2, in relation to birth order and placental vascular anatomy. Forty-five pairs of MC twins and 71 pairs of DC twins were included. Mean Hb differences at birth in MC and DC twins were similar, respectively 1.5 and 1.4 g/dL. Hb differences >5 g/dL at birth were found in 2% (1/45) of MC twins compared to 8% (6/71) in DC twins. On day 2, mean Hb differences in MC twins increased to 3.8 g/dL, and the rate of MC twins with Hb differences >5 g/dL increased to 27% (12/45) (p < 0.001). Mean Hb differences and the percentage of twins with Hb differences >5 g/dL in DC twins did not change on day 2. In MC twins, Hb levels measured on day 2 were significantly higher in second-born twins than in first-born twins, respectively 17.7 and 15.5 g/dL (p = 0.002). Hb differences on day 2 were significantly higher in MC twins with superficial vascular anastomoses than those without superficial anastomoses, respectively 4.0 g/dL and 1.5 g/dL (p = 0.036). Hb differences occur more frequently in MC twins without chronic TTTS than in DC twins, but only when measured on the second day of life. Hb differences in MC twins are associated with birth order and superficial vascular anastomoses.

To pay or not to pay

Over the past two decades, IVF has helped hundreds of thousands of infertile couples around the world become parents. Despite its growing success and widespread use in the United States to treat infertility, IVF remains primarily a privately funded treatment. Most health plans exclude it from coverage on the grounds that it is not medically necessary. In contrast, other developed countries (such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, The Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden) have made provisions in their national health policies to cover infertility treatment, including IVF (1). In the United States in 2001, the median cost per IVF cycle was estimated to be $9,226 (2). Because of this high out-of-pocket cost, many financially constrained infertile couples are excluded from access to this care.

Concordance rate for Type II diabetes mellitus in monozygotic twins: actuarial analysis

To determine the concordance rate for Type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus in monozygotic twin pairs, initially ascertained discordant for diabetes, we carried out a prospective study on 44 non-diabetic subjects, each of whom had a sibling twin with diabetes (21 men, 23 women, median age 55 years, interquartile range 47-65). The subjects were referred as discordant for Type II diabetes. The twin pairs were part of the British Diabetic Twin Study and ascertained between May 1968 and January 1998. These subjects underwent an OGTT at time of referral and periodically thereafter. The mean follow-up was 8 years (range 0-18 years) and data were collected until January 1996. The percentage of twins who developed Type II diabetes was assessed by standard actuarial life-table methods and the pairwise concordance rate, that is the proportion of concordant pairs over the sum of concordant and discordant pairs, was calculated. The observed rates of concordance for Type II diabetes at 1, 5, 10, and 15 years follow-up were 17, 33, 57, and 76%, respectively. The concordance rate for any abnormality of glucose metabolism (either Type II diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance) at 15 years follow-up was 96%. The concordance rate for Type II diabetes in monozygotic twins is very high even in twins initially ascertained discordant for diabetes.

Time Trends in Characteristics and Outcome of Twin Pregnancies

This study describes the evolution in fetal and neonatal mortality rates among twin pairs born in 22 hospitals located in the eastern regions of the province of Quebec in 1976-1978 (n = 776 pairs) and 1982-1985 (n = 712 pairs). It also assesses the contribution of maternal factors, obstetrical care and characteristics of twins in the variation of the risk of death over time. The fetal mortality rate did not improve from 1976-1978 (22.6 per 1000) to 1982-1985 (28.1 per 1000). However, the neonatal mortality rate declined from 44.7 to 34.7 per 1000 liveborn first twins and from 56.8 to 36.1 per 1000 liveborn second twins. For first twins as for second twins, birthweight-specific neonatal mortality rates decreased within birthweight categories under 2500 g. In the second period, 96.9% of twin pregnancies were detected before confinement compared to 59.6% in the earlier period. The proportion of twins delivered by obstetricians, the percentage of twin births occurring in ultraspecialized perinatal units and the frequency of caesarean sections increased markedly. The proportion of preterm births increased over time (34.5% vs 43.1%) whereas the percentage of low birthweight twins decreased but not significantly (54.3% 51.6%). In this study, changes in maternal age, parity, educational level, sex of pairs, qualification of the physician, and level of care available at the hospital of birth, did not account for the decrease in neonatal mortality rates among twins. The increase in the frequency of caesarean sections seemed to explain only a small proportion of the decrease in the neonatal mortality rate among second twins. In the second as well as in the first period, the neonatal mortality rate for twins was six times higher than that for singletons.

Comparisons of Incipient Music Responses Among Very Young Twins and Singletons

IN SEPTEMBER, 1960, the lilorida State University Institute of Human Development began a multi-disciplinary longitudinal research designed to study intensively not less than twenty pairs of preschool-age twins and an equal number of non-twins matched by age and sex in a laboratory situation. The research project described herein was affiliated with the twin study of the Institute of Human Development. R. L. Witherspoon, director of the Institute, was the principal investigator of the twin study. Irvin Cooper was the directing professor of this study, which received financial support from the Florida State University Research Council. A renew of the literature reveals that sensitivity to music is present in very young children, but there appears to have been no significant attempt to determine when musical responses Erst emerge, or the nature of these early responses. Studies which have dealt with the rhythmic development or singing development of very young children have rarely indicated in music symbols musical patterns which emerge either spontaneously or by imitation. Finally, there has been msufficient research to establiih any norms as to the number of infants or young children who possess a measurable sensitivity to music, or the degree of sensitivity to music found among this age group. Nowhere in the literature did the writer find evidence that mvestigation of music responses among tuins of any age has taken place; furthermore, a team of graduate students working with the Florida State University Institute of EIuman Development in 1961 compiled a bibliography of 94 twin studies, none of which dealt speciIScally with music responses among twins of any age. The present study was undertaken in order to determine (a) the approximate age at which responses to music become apparent in twins and singletons; (b) the percentage of twins and singletons of this study whoX by age two years, exhibit a measurable degree of response to music; (c) the approximate degree of music response present in twins and singletons of this study; (d) the types of music stimuli which evoke the greatest responses from the twins and singletons; (e) the influence of growth and experience during the duration of this study; and (f) the nature of overt primitive musical expressions, either spontaneous or evoked, of twins and singletons. The study also sought to test the following general hypotheses: (a) that l;here is no significant diSerence in the degree of response to music of twins of different ses during infancy a$ld early childhood; (b) that there is no significant difference in the frequency or degree of response between paired twins and their corresponding singleton controls; (c) that there is no significant difference in the errocative power of specific music stimuli; (d) that there is no significant difference in response scores of various observation periods;

Polyembryony in Cassia

DURING an investigation into a presumed hybrid swarm among Cassias 1, seeds with twin embryos were found. An examination of the seeds of different species of Cassia that were available has shown the occurrence of polyembryony to be geographically widespread and remarkably common within several species. Table 1 gives the percentage of twins and triplets (in brackets) found in different collections of fifty to a hundred seeds.

74. Twinning in Cattle

1. The incidence of twins has been one twin birth in every forty-eight Red Poll births, and one twin birth in every thirty-three Friesian births.2. So far as is known no identical twins have been dropped.3. Thirteen of the fourteen freemartins reared have been barren.4. The birth weight of twin calves has been only slightly lower than that of single calves. Bull calves have been approximately 6 lb. heavier than heifer calves.5. The mortality amongst twins is approximately equal to that amongst single calves.6. Twinning appears to be inheritable and to run in strains.7. The gestation period of a cow bearing twins has been from 8 to 10 days shorter than that of a cow bearing a single calf.8. The percentage of twins dropped increased as the age of the dam at calving increases.9. Twinning is not influenced by the season of the year.10. The twins and dams of twins have been consistently heavier producers of milk and butterfat than the other herd members.11. There is some evidence to suggest a close genetic relationship between the following three characters: (i) multiple births, (ii) high milk and butterfat production, (iii) long life and fertility.