Pepper Tree Research Articles

Physicochemical characterisation of hexanic seed oil extract from the pepper tree ( Schinus molle ) of South African origin

The physicochemical characterisation of oil extracts from Schinus molle seeds collected in South Africa was performed. The oils were extracted in hexane, physicochemical parameters determined and lipids profiled by gas chromatography, in order to determine its potential for use in industry, ethnomedicine and its nutritional value. The total oil yield of the seed dry mass was 22%. The oil was semi-liquid at room temperature and consisted of 24 fatty acids of which 15.56, 16.75, and 31.02% were saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, respectively. Palmitic acid (8.31%), oleic acid (15.3%) and linoleic acid (26.99%) were the main fatty acids in S. molle seed oil, which had a high acid value (178.23 ± 36.8 mg KOH/g), iodine value (17.74 g I2/100 g oil) and saponification value (129.88 mg KOH/g). It was concluded that oil from S. molle seeds could be used as a source of palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid which would be utilised as industrial ingredients in the manufacture of soaps, pharmaceutical products, cosmetics and nutritional supplements. Keywords : Schinus molle , hexane oil extraction, fatty acids, ethnomedicine African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 12(8), pp. 854-859

Effect of Schinus terebinthifolius on Candida albicans growth kinetics, cell wall formation and micromorphology

Objective: To evaluate the anti-fungal activity of a tincture from Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper tree) on Candida albicans (ATCC 289065), a micro-organism associated with fungal infections of the oral cavity. Materials and methods: Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC) were determined through microdilution technique, as well as the microbial growth curve of C. albicans promoted by S. terebinthifolius. In addition, this study investigated a possible activity of the product on the fungal cell wall and its biological activity on fungal morphology. Nystatin was used as control and all tests were performed in triplicate. Results: S. terebinthifolius showed MIC of 312.5 µg/mL and MFC of 2500 µg/mL upon the strain tested, while Nystatin showed MIC and MFC of 6.25 µg/mL. As regards the microbial growth curve, S. terebinthifolius was able to significantly reduce the number of CFU/mL when compared to growth control until the time of 60 min. In the times 120 and 180 min there was no statistically significant difference between the growth control and the experimental product. S. terebinthifolius possibly acts on the fungal cell wall, once the sorbitol test indicated a MIC of 1250 µg/mL. In the fungal morphology, a reduction was observed of pseudo-hyphae, chlamydoconidia and blastoconidia in the presence of the experimental product. Conclusion: S. terebinthifolius showed anti-fungal activity against C. albicans, inhibiting, probably, the fungal cell wall formation.

Proximal analysis and insecticidal effects of extracts from pepper tree (Schinus molle) leaves on elm leaf beetle (Xanthogaleruca luteola) larvae

Among a series of exotic pests that have been reported in Chile, Xanthogaleruca luteola Müller (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a defoliating insect of elms (Ulmus spp.), is causing important damage in urban trees in central Chile. Leaves from Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae), an interesting South American plant, were characterized and compared physically and chemically through proximal analysis. Also, the insecticidal effects of ethanol and water extracts from young and mature leaves of S. molle were evaluated on third instar larvae of X. luteola at concentrations of 0.5–4.3% w/v. Water and lipid contents presented the greatest differences in both leaf maturity stages. At 12d, the maximum concentrations obtained with ethanol and water from young and mature leaves caused mean mortalities of 89 and 67, and 78 and 63%, respectively. The lowest 50% lethal concentration was 1.28% w/v, obtained at the 7th day of evaluation with the ethanol extract from young leaves. Hence, extracts from S. molle leaves may have a potential use as a bioinsecticide in Integrated Pest Management plans against X. luteola and other similar pests defoliating urban trees, to decrease the risk of using conventional pesticides in public areas.

Influence of essential oil fractionation by vacuum distillation on acaricidal activity against the cattle tick

The aim of this work was to study the influence of essential oil fractionation on acaricidal activity against the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. The citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus J.) and pepper tree (Schinus molle L.) essential oils were fractionated by vacuum distillation yielding fractions that were analyzed by the GC/MS. Laboratory tests were carried out to determine the effect of the total essential oil and fractions on larvae of the cattle tick R. (B.) microplus. The fractions 04 and 05 of the C. winterianus essential oil were the most active showing LC50 values of 1.20 and 1.34 μL/mL, respectively. The LC50 of the total oil was 3.30 μL/mL while the effect of the fractions 01, 02 and 03 was less pronounced, with LC50 values of 4.37, 4.24 and 3.49 μL/mL, respectively. The fraction 03 of the S. molle essential oil was the most active showing LC50 value of 8.80 μL/mL while the fractions 01 and 02 did not show toxic effects on the larvae.

Assessment of the Toxicity of the Brazilian Pepper Trees Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Aroeira‐da‐praia) and Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão (Aroeira‐do‐sertão)

The present study aimed to assess the preclinical toxicity of two plants commonly used to treat "stomach ailments" in Brazil: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (S) and Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão (M). In male rats, chronic treatment (83 days) with both pepper trees (17.6 and 13.8 mg/kg, S and M, respectively) has been shown to decrease hematocrit. However, a reduction in the number of red blood cells and hemoglobin was only seen following administration of S. terebinthifolius. None of the plants caused anatomopathological alterations following chronic treatment, and mating ability and fertility were not affected. Both pepper trees showed moderate toxicity following acute and chronic treatment by gavage, particularly S. terebinthifolius. Moreover, bone malformations were induced in fetuses, and a slight delay in recovery time of the postural reflex was observed in pups from female animals treated (18 days) with S. terebinthifolius. Given these results, a better assessment of the risks and benefits of the internal use of these plants is necessary, especially when used by women of childbearing age.

Genetic Diversity of Colletotrichum spp. an Endophytic Fungi in a Medicinal Plant, Brazilian Pepper Tree.

In this study, we reported thirty-nine endophytic fungi identified as Colletotrichum spp. associated with Brazilian pepper tree or aroeira (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi. Anacardiaceae) in Paraná state, Brazil. These endophytes were identified by morphological and molecular methods, using PCR taxon-specific with CaInt/ITS4, CgInt/ITS4, and Col1/ITS4 primers, which amplify specific bands in C. acutatum, C. gloeosporioides lato sensu, and Colletotrichum boninensis, respectively, and by DNA sequence analysis of the nrDNA internal transcribed spacer region (ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2). We also assayed the presence of dsRNA particles in Colletotrichum spp. isolates. Combining both morphological characters and molecular data, we identified the species C. gloeosporioides, C. boninense, and C. simmondsii. However, we found a high genetic variability intraspecific in C. gloeosporioides which suggests the existence of several other species. Bands of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) were detected in three of thirty-nine isolates. Identity of these bands was confirmed by RNAse, DNAse, and S1 nuclease treatments for the isolates LGMF633, LGMF726, and LGMF729. This is the first study reporting these particles of dsRNA in C. gloeosporioides.

Strong circumstantial evidence for ethanol toxicosis in Cedar Waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum)

Several flocks of Cedar Waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum) were found dead after colliding with solid objects such as picture windows, plexiglass, and fences. Necropsy examination revealed that all birds had engorged themselves with over-ripe berries of the Brazilian Pepper Tree (Schinus terebinthifolius) and had hemorrhages in the breast muscles and the coelomic cavity due to hepatic rupture. Microscopic examination of tissues revealed no underlying pathological conditions. Ethanol was detected at levels of 260–1,000 ppm in the intestinal contents and liver, respectively. The cause of death in these birds was trauma that resulted from colliding with hard objects when flying under the influence of ethanol.

First record of the pepper tree psyllid, Calophya schini Tuthill (Hemiptera, Calophyidae), in the Palaearctic region

The presence of the psyllid Calophya schini infesting the Peruvian pepper tree, Schinus molle, was detected in several localities in the region of Lisbon, in Portugal. This is the first record of this jumping plant-louse in Europe and the Palaearctic region.

Description of a New Species of Aphelopus Dalman from China (Hymenoptera: Chrysidoidea: Dryinidae)

A new species of the genus Aphelopus Dalman (Hymenoptera: Dryinidae) from Yunnan Province, China is described and illustrated. Existing keys to species are revised to incorporate A. alebroides, new species. The new species is a parasitoid of an unidentified species of Alebroides Matsumura (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae) feeding on Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maximowicz (Rutaceae) (Chinese prickly-ash; Sichuan pepper tree).

Biology and Systematics of the Leafmining Gracillariidae of Brazilian Pepper Tree,Schinus terebinthifolius raddi, with Descriptions of a New Genus and Four New Species)

Recent surveys in southern Florida, USA, Brazil and Argentina, for biological control agents to assist in the control of the invasive Brazilian peppertree, have discovered several previously unknown species of plant mining Lepidoptera of the family Gracillariidae. Morphological descriptions with summaries of their biology for the following four new species and one new genus are presented: Caloptilia schinusifolia Davis and Wheeler, from Brazil and possibly Argentina; Eucosmophora schinusivora Davis and Wheeler, from Argentina and Brazil; Leurocephala schinusae Davis and Mc Kay, new genus and species, from Argentina and Brazil; and Marmara habecki Davis, new species, from Florida, USA. The larvae of all four species exhibit a hypermetamorphic development consisting of early instar sapfeeding and later instar tissue feeding stages typical for members of Gracillariidae. Larvae of M. habecki were also observed to possess an additional nonfeeding, transitional instar prior to the final instar as is typical for the genus (Wagner et al. 2000). Larvae of the new genus Leurocephala were discovered to undergo an intermediate, nearly apodal tissue feeding stage between the sapfeeding and final tissue feeding instars. Unique specimens representing an additional three species of Gracillariidae also have been reared from this tree in Argentina or Brazil, but these could not be identified because of inadequate material. COI barcodes were obtained for Marmara habecki, M. smilacisella, and an undescribed Marmara from Brazil. Each species was separated by a minimum barcode divergence of > 4.5% (Fig. 111).

Changes in phytochemical, antimicrobial and free radical scavenging activities of the Peruvian pepper tree ( Schinus molle L.) as influenced by fruit maturation

The effect of stage of maturity on total lipids, fatty acids, yields and essential oil composition and their antimicrobial and free radical scavenging activities of the Schinus molle fruits was investigated. The content of total lipids varied from 2.87 to 5.35% (w/w, dw) and were rich in unsaturated fatty acids particularly linoleic acid. As maturation progress, the essential oil yield dropped from 5.18% to 1.15%. Monoterpene hydrocarbons with α-phellandrene (35.15–40.38%), limonene + β-phellandrene (21.47–36.62%), β-myrcene (7.61–24.96%) and α-pinene (1.92–2.58%) were found to be the main components. At the same time, the essential oils were evaluated for their antimicrobial and free radical scavenging activities. They were found to be active against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhymurium and Escherichia coli but they do not inhibit the growth of Candida albicans. Conversely, they showed very weak activity against the DPPH radical. In both assay, the oil derived from the intermediate stage was reported as more efficient.

Supercritical fluid extraction of volatile and non-volatile compounds from Schinus molle L.

Schinus molle L., also known as pepper tree, has been reported to have antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, antipyretic, antitumoural and cicatrizing properties. This work studies supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) to obtain volatile and non-volatile compounds from the aerial parts of Schinus molle L. and the influence of the process on the composition of the extracts. Experiments were performed in a pilot-scale extractor with a capacity of 1 L at pressures of 9, 10, 12, 15 and 20 MPa at 323.15 K. The volatile compounds were obtained by CO2 supercritical extraction with moderate pressure (9 MPa), whereas the non-volatile compounds were extracted at higher pressure (12 to 20 MPa). The analysis of the essential oil was carried out by GC-MS and the main compounds identified were sabinene, limonene, D-germacrene, bicyclogermacrene, and spathulenol. For the non-volatile extracts, the total phenolic content was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteau method. Moreover, one of the goals of this study was to compare the experimental data with the simulated yields predicted by a mathematical model based on mass transfer. The model used requires three adjustable parameters to predict the experimental extraction yield curves.

Black mildew fungi (<I>Meliolaceae</I>) associated with <I>Schinus terebinthifolius</I> (Brazilian pepper tree) in Brazil

Black mildew fungi (<I>Meliolaceae</I>) associated with <I>Schinus terebinthifolius</I> (Brazilian pepper tree) in Brazil

Randomized clinical trial comparing the efficacy of the vaginal use of metronidazole with a Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus) extract for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis

A 7.4% vaginal extract of the Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi) was compared with 0.75% vaginal metronidazole, both manufactured by the Hebron Laboratory, for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis, used at bedtime for 7 nights. The condition was diagnosed using the combined criteria of Amsel and Nugent in two groups of 140 and 137 women, aged between 18 and 40 years. Intention-to-treat analysis was performed. Women were excluded from the study if they presented delayed menstruation, were pregnant, were using or had used any topical or systemic medication, presented any other vaginal infections, presented hymen integrity, or if they reported any history suggestive of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. According to Amsel's criteria separately, 29 patients (21.2%) treated with the extract and 87 (62.1%) treated with metronidazole were considered to be cured (P < 0.001). According to Nugent's score separately, 19 women (13.9%) treated with the extract and 79 (56.4%) treated with metronidazole were considered to be cured (P < 0.001). Using the two criteria together, the so-called total cure was observed in 17 women (12.4%) treated with the extract and in 79 women (56.4%) treated with metronidazole (P < 0.001). In conclusion, the cure rate for bacterial vaginosis using a vaginal gel from a pepper tree extract was lower than the rate obtained with metronidazole gel, while side effects were infrequent and non-severe in both groups.

Quantification of the levels of tannins and total phenols and evaluation of the antioxidant activity of fruits of pepper tree

Os frutos de aroeira (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi) são amplamente utilizados na culinária mundial e seu consumo vem sendo estimulado desde a década de 80, em função da presença de substâncias fenólicas. Sendo assim, este trabalho quantificou os teores de taninos e fenóis totais nos frutos da aroeira, buscando estabelecer uma possível correlação entre essas substâncias e sua atividade antioxidante. Os compostos fenólicos foram extraídos com acetona:água (7:3), e dosados por espectrofotometria. A atividade antioxidante foi quantificada pelo método do DPPH. Os resultados dos testes revelaram baixos teores de taninos condensados e fenóis totais nas cascas dos frutos, não sendo detectados taninos hidrolisáveis nos mesmos. Apesar disso, o extrato metanólico apresentou elevado potencial antioxidante, o que indica a inexistência de uma correlação entre a atividade antioxidante e os teores de compostos fenólicos nesses frutos.

Role of Pollen Allergy in Taiwanese Patients With Allergic Rhinitis

Pollen allergy is believed to be less common in East Asia, Latin America, and tropical areas. The purpose of this study was to understand the role of pollen allergy in Taiwan. Patients with clinically diagnosed allergic rhinitis were enrolled. All subjects received a 30-item skin test panel that included perennial allergens (house dust mix, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, Dermatophagoides farinae, dog epithelium, cat hairs, cockroach mix, and Candida albicans) and pollen allergens (acacia, pine mix, eucalyptus, beefwood, juniper mix, willow, mulberry mix, pepper tree, cedar, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, ragweed mix, Timothy grass, spiny pigweed, cocklebur, sage mix, sheep sorrel, dog fennel, pigweed mix, English plantain, castor bean, alfalfa, and dandelion). A total of 419 patients were recruited. A total of 313 (74.7%) had a positive skin test. A total of 288 patients (68.7%) were sensitive to perennial allergens, and 11 8 patients (28.2%) were sensitive to pollen allergens. However, 93 pollen-sensitive patients were also sensitive to perennial allergens, and only 25 were sensitive to pollen allergens alone. The most common allergens were D. pteronyssinus, D. farinae, house dust mix, and cockroach, but the most common pollen allergens were spiny pigweed, Johnson grass, and sheep sorrel. All nasal symptoms tended to be more severe in patients who were sensitive to perennial allergens than in those who were sensitive to pollen allergens alone. Most patients with allergic rhinitis in Taiwan are sensitive to perennial allergens, and pollens are a less common allergen.

Accommodating scenarios of climate change and management in modelling the distribution of the invasive tree Schinus molle in South Africa

Determining the potential range of invasive alien species under current conditions is important. However, we also need to consider future distributions under scenarios of climate change and different management interventions when formulating effective long‐term intervention strategies. This paper combines niche modelling and fine‐scale process‐based modelling to define regions at high risk of invasion and simulate likely dynamics at the landscape scale.Our study species is Schinus molle (Peruvian pepper tree; Anacardiaceae), a native of central South America, introduced to South Africa in about 1850 where it was widely planted along roads.Localities of planted and naturalized trees were mapped along 5380 km of roads – a transect that effectively samples a large part of western South Africa. Correlative modelling was used to produce profiles of present and future environmental conditions characterizing its planted and naturalized ranges. A cellular‐automata simulation model was used to estimate the dynamics of S. molle under future climates and different management scenarios.The overall potential range of S. molle in the region is predicted to shrink progressively with predicted climate change. Some of the potential range of S. molle defined based on current conditions (including areas where it is currently highly invasive) is likely to become less favourable. The species could persist where it is well established long after conditions for recruitment have deteriorated. Some areas where the species is not widely naturalized now (notably the fynbos biome) are likely to become more favourable. Our modelling approach allows for the delineation of areas likely to be invaded in future by considering a range of factors at different scales that mediate the interplay of climatic variables and other drivers that define the dimensions of human intervention such as distance from planted trees and the density of planted plants, both of which affect propagule pressure.

Estudo in vitro da ação antimicrobiana de extratos de plantas contra Enterococcus faecalis

INTRODUCAO: Muitos estudos tem sido realizados para avaliar o potencial terapeutico das plantas. OBJETIVO: Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a acao antimicrobiana dos extratos etanolicos da aroeira-da-praia (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi), da aroeira-do-sertao (Astronium urundeuva [Fr. All.] Engl.), da ameixa-do-mato (Ximenia americana L.), da quixabeira (Syderoxylum obtusifolium [Roem et Schult.]) e do hipoclorito de sodio (NaOCl a 2,5%), contra o Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212). METODOLOGIA: Foi realizado teste de difusao em agar, pelo metodo do poco, utilizando-se como controle positivo a clorexidina a 0,12%. Os microrganismos foram semeados em caldo BHI e incubados a 37oC por 24 horas. Posteriormente, as suspensoes microbianas foram semeadas em placas Petri, com agar Mueller Hinton, sendo confeccionados seis pocos equidistantes. As placas foram mantidas a temperatura ambiente por 2 horas, para ocorrer a pre-difusao das substâncias, e incubadas a 37oC por 48 horas. Foram feitas as analises e medicoes dos halos de inibicao em triplicata e os resultados foram analisados estatisticamente (teste de analise de variância [ANOVA]). RESULTADOS: A quixabeira apresentou os menores halos de inibicao (teste t, p < 0,05); por outro lado, a clorexidina a 0,12% e os extratos vegetais aroeira-do-sertao e aroeira-da-praia, na concentracao 100%, induziram halos maiores do que o NaOCl a 2,5%, com diferenca estatisticamente significativa (teste t, p < 0,05). A aroeira-do-sertao e a aroeira-da-praia apresentaram halos de inibicao contra o Enterococcus faecalis superiores aos demais extratos vegetais testados, em todas as concentracoes. CONCLUSAO: Todas as substâncias analisadas apresentaram atividade antimicrobiana contra o Enterococcus faecalis, sugerindo que podem representar substâncias alternativas no tratamento endodontico.

Antibacterial activity, chemical composition, and cytotoxicity of leaf's essential oil from Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius, Raddi)

Antibacterial activity, chemical composition, and cytotoxicity of leaf's essential oil from Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius, Raddi)

Perfil clínico e microbiológico de mulheres com vaginose bacteriana

to study the clinical and microbiological profile of women with bacterial vaginosis participating in a randomized, double-blind clinical trial, which compared the vaginal use of preparations from red pepper tree and metronidazole for the treatment of genital discharge. the study was conducted on a series of 277 women with bacterial vaginosis concomitantly diagnosed by the criteria of Amsel and Nugent, selected from a total of 462 recruited patients using the information obtained before intervention. Data were analyzed with the Epi-Info 3.32 software. In order to compare the outcomes frequencies between the intervention groups, the chi2 test was used and the risk ratio and 95% confidence interval were calculated. The intention to treat analysis was performed. In addition to the determination of diagnostic parameters, the culture of vaginal content and a Papanicolaou cytology test were also performed. the most frequent clinical complaints were genital discharge, observed in 206 participants (74.4%) and the fish odor of the vaginal secretion, which occurred in 68.6% of the cases (190 patients). Among the diagnostic clinical criteria, the presence of clue-cells was positive in 275 women (99.3%), the Whiff test, in 266 (96.0%), followed by pH >4.5, which occurred in 92.8% of the cases, and by the presence of fluid grayish discharge reported by 206 participants (74.4%). Regarding the Nugent criterion, the median score was 8.0. Culture of the vaginal content permitted the identification of Gardnerella vaginalis in 96.8% of cases and of Mobiluncus in 53.1%. Only one third of the exams showed the presence of Lactobacillus (89 women - 32.1%). Fungal growth occurred in the cultures of 14 participants (5.1%). In most cases, culture revealed the presence of Corynebacterium (94.2%), Gram-positive cocci (98.2%), as well as Gram-positive (99.3%) and Gram-negative (91.0%) bacilli. Oncotic colposcopy revealed a very scarce presence of lactobacilli, which were present in only 8 cytological exams (2.9%) out of the total of 273 exams performed. the results of the present study did not differ from the literature regarding the symptoms reported by the women, the clinical criteria most frequently observed in the diagnosis, or the bacterial species detected in cultures of vaginal content. These findings indicate the need for further studies that might better elucidate the interrelations between the microbiological findings and the clinical expression of bacterial vaginosis.