People's Claims Research Articles

The expressive injustice of being rich

According to limitarianism, it is morally impermissible to be too rich. We consider three main challenges to limitarianism: the redundancy objection, the inconclusiveness objection, and the commitment objection. As a distributive principle, we find that limitarianism fails to overcome the three objections—even taking recent theoretical innovations into account. Instead, we suggest that the core commitment of limitarianism can be drawn from the excess intuition. It entails that at some point, people's claims to retain wealth become qualitatively different: they become preposterous from the point of view of interpersonal morality and justification. Extreme wealth, we argue, adds a distinctive expressive reason to worry about inequality and insufficiency, compounding these other distributive injustices. In retaining or wasting excess wealth while others have too little, the wealthy send a message of complete disregard for the interests of their co-citizens. They express that their disadvantaged compatriots have a diminished moral standing.

The Future of Work? The Political Theory of Work and Leisure

The prospect of rapid technological development and automation has heightened attention toward issues of work and leisure, prompting many to ask what the future of work will be. Though this question is sometimes asked as a matter of forecasting, the path forward is not predetermined. A range of collective choices shape the conditions of people's work and leisure. It is essential for these choices to be guided by consideration of what the future of work should be. This article reviews recent literature in normative political theory about work and leisure, focusing on how they should be conceptualized, the multidimensional values and disvalues associated with both, and the grounds of people's claims to each. It highlights how the goods and bads of work and leisure are unequally shared by class, race, and gender, as well as the theoretical and practical advantages of considering people's interests in work and leisure in conjunction.

Numbers without aggregation

AbstractSuppose we can save either a larger group of persons or a distinct, smaller group from some harm. Many people think that, all else equal, we ought to save the greater number. This article defends this view (with qualifications). But unlike earlier theories, it does not rely on the idea that several people's interests or claims receive greater aggregate weight. The argument starts from the idea that due to their stakes, the affected people have claims to have a say in the rescue decision. As rescuers, our primary duty is to respect these procedural claims, which we must do by doing what these people would decide, in a process where each is given an equal vote on the matter. So in cases where each votes in their own self‐interest, respect for their equal right to decide, or their autonomy, will lead us to save the greater number. The argument is explained in detail, with special attention to the questions of how, exactly, it avoids aggregation, and of why majority rule is superior to lottery procedures. The view has further advantages. Especially, it explains the “partial” relevance of numbers in cases involving unequal harms, and it does so in a way that dissolves the appearance of paradox that besets theories of “partial aggregation.”

Feminism without “gender identity”

Talk of gender identity is at the core of heated current philosophical and political debates. Yet, it is unclear what it means to have one. I examine several ways of understanding this concept in light of core aims of trans writers and activists. Most importantly, the concept should make good trans people's understanding of their own gender identities and help understand why misgendering is a serious harm and why it is permissible to require information about people's gender identities in public life. I conclude that none of the available accounts meets these essential criteria, on the assumption that the gender norms of femininity and masculinity are unjustified. But we can, and should, pursue the feminist project without “gender identity”. Such feminism can include trans people because it is possible to account for the specific harm of misgendering without assuming a claim to the recognition of our gender identities. I conclude that we should eliminate the concept of “gender identity.” To understand the phenomena that are putatively captured by “gender identity,” we are better off employing other concepts, such as “sexual dysphoria,” (assigned or aspirational) “gender roles,” and (internalised or endorsed) “gender norms”. These concepts can usefully replace “gender identity” in an individual evaluation of each of the trans people's claims to inclusion into particular spaces.

Responding to historical injustices: Collective inheritance and the moral irrelevance of group identity.

I argue that changes in the numerical identity of groups do not necessarily speak in favour of the supersession of some historical injustice. I contend that the correlativity between the perpetrator and the victim of injustices is not broken when the identity of groups changes. I develop this argument by considering indigenous people's claims in Argentina for the injustices suffered during the Conquest of the Desert. I argue that present claimants do not need to be part of the same entity whose members suffered injustices many years ago. For identifying the proper recipients of reparation, all that is necessary is that the group who suffered the historical injustice under consideration has survived into the present. I also support a view upon which present living members of a certain group have reasons to redress those injustices perpetrated by their predecessors if they are relevantly connected with each other. In particular, by relying on the notion of collective inheritance, I argue that if present-day members of a certain group claim that they are the continuation of the group whose past members bequeathed them certain goods, they cannot consistently reject such a membership when the very same people legated them certain evils.

Consumption in the G20 nations causes particulate air pollution resulting in two million premature deaths annually

Worldwide exposure to ambient PM2.5 causes over 4 million premature deaths annually. As most of these deaths are in developing countries, without internationally coordinated efforts this polarized situation will continue. As yet, however, no studies have quantified nation-to-nation consumer responsibility for global mortality due to both primary and secondary PM2.5 particles. Here we quantify the global footprint of PM2.5-driven premature deaths for the 19 G20 nations in a position to lead such efforts. G20 consumption in 2010 was responsible for 1.983 [95% Confidence Interval: 1.685–2.285] million premature deaths, at an average age of 67, including 78.6 [71.5–84.8] thousand infant deaths, implying that the G20 lifetime consumption of about 28 [24–33] people claims one life. Our results indicate that G20 nations should take responsibility for their footprint rather than focusing solely on transboundary air pollution, as this would expand opportunities for reducing PM2.5-driven premature mortality. Given the infant mortality footprint identified, it would moreover contribute to ensuring infant lives are not unfairly left behind in countries like South Africa, which have a weak relationship with G20 nations.

Dead Goat on the runway. Disruptive fusion, affective citizenship and gender.

This article examines an episode of goat sacrifice performed on an airline tarmac in Pakistan and the feelings and interpretations various audiences expressed in response to it, to make two specific contributions to the literature on cultural performance. First, by focusing on the ways that affective responses to the performance were socially structured, it describes how cultural performances, like the goat sacrifice, shape affective citizenship by way of feeling rules. Second, this article focuses on the affective dimensions of the goat sacrifice to theorize a novel form of fusion, I call “disruptive fusion.” Disruptive fusion turns in the goat sacrifice case on jugaar, a strategy of subversive improvisation associated with subalterns in South Asian settings. Despite its association with subversive ingenuity, jugaar, I show in this paper, can work also as a mechanism of stratification. It amplifies exclusions, I argue, because even ostensibly subversive cultural performances, like goat sacrifice on an airline tarmac, activate feeling rules. These rules proscribe certain affective expressions while highlighting others. Since emotions activate cognitive schema, feeling rules can shape the extent to which certain interpretations gain traction in the public sphere. This paper demonstrates how the feeling rules embedded within cultural performance can work to amplify certain interpretations of a news story, and therefore heighten some people's claims to affective citizenship while squashing others.

International justice: a view of western communitarianism

Does the communitarian perspective on politics offer a credible account of the conception of the relationship between the self and the other, which can provide a valid conceptual basis for justice among states? How does the understanding of the state as a nation-state impact the possibility of international justice? These questions constitute the primary concern of this work. It must be mentioned that although any attempt to analyze the international realm through the lens of communitarianism would necessarily entail invoking the politics of nationalism, this study deals with nationalism only to assess how communitarianism contributes to international justice. The study is not concerned with the validity or authenticity of a people's claims to nationalism; rather, the aim is to work out a communitarian perspective on international justice. This work argues that though the communitarian understanding of justice does offer a valid and credible account of the conception of the self and his relationship with the other, it fails to apply to the international context. Justice can only be required, negotiated, and implemented among members of a community. To understand international justice, what is required is the recognition of common humanity, a commonly shared conception of the good outside the boundaries of the nation-state. The communitarian perspective does not offer space for such recognition.

Appealing for Liberty: Freedom Suits in the South by Loren Schweninger

Reviewed by: Appealing for Liberty: Freedom Suits in the South by Loren Schweninger Aston Gonzalez Appealing for Liberty: Freedom Suits in the South. Loren Schweninger. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-1906-6428-2. 440 pp., cloth, $39.95. Interspersed with provocative and chilling accounts of enslaved people attempting to win their freedom using means of law, Appealing for Liberty offers an outstanding overview of the strategies that secured their freedom. Schweninger's analysis and comparison of more than two thousand freedom suits representing more than fortysix hundred plaintiffs from all of the Southern states and the District of Columbia provide numerous insights into the people, laws, and courts that determined their outcomes. Primarily organized by theme, the work is bookended with chapters on freedom suits that incorporate legal issues that are closely scrutinized within the book. Schweninger follows the legal distinctions that helped determine these cases between the American Revolution and the Civil War by parsing out the importance of how, when, and where people gained or failed in their attempts to win their freedom. Schweninger's book reveals a great deal about the court systems that enslaved people navigated. In pointing out the differences among the state laws and customs that shaped juridical and legal processes, two states—Louisiana and Delaware—receive special attention. All Southern states are represented in the book, but many of the most striking cases come from these two states. A series of laws offered more avenues for freedom that stemmed from nonimportation laws, being hired out, skin color, and Native American heritage. As legal historian Ariela Gross has previously argued, many cases highlight the importance of performing race, specifically whiteness or Indianness and its often attendant freedom, according to phenotype, dress, and comportment in the courts. For example, until the approach of the Civil War Louisiana law presumed skin color to reflect enslaved or free status (53, 120). Other avenues to freedom—such as hearsay evidence permissible in the courts—closed shortly in the decades after the American Revolution. Furthermore, these freedom suits illuminate the procedure of judicial evidence with respect to enslavement and freedom. Lower courts granted freedom to plaintiffs who purchased themselves through self-hire, an often illegal practice, but "the appeals courts would invariably reverse the rulings" (176). [End Page 321] The book provides a rich understanding of those people who helped and hindered enslaved people's claims to freedom. Though enslaved (rarely) and free black people (occasionally) provided testimony to assist in a freedom suit, white community members and lawyers, many of them slaveowners, provided the bulk of the legal support in the examined cases. In an especially revealing chapter, readers discover that white lawyers took on freedom suits not due to financial gain or antislavery beliefs but because they "sought to maintain the integrity of the statutes enacted by state legislatures, to safeguard the sanctity of the legal process, and to defend the rights of slaves or free persons of color who, they deemed, had been unfairly treated" (242). Schweninger's study reveals that "in only a few, isolated cases" did antislavery activists assist African Americans suing for their freedom (187). Later chapters of the book that focus on interpersonal relationships make clear that claimants often benefitted from an extensive support network. Others, like those who initially stood to inherit enslaved people in wills, often turned to deceptive or illegal actions to keep term slaves and manumitted slaves permanently in bondage. Additionally, enslaved people documented how enslavers broke agreements and swindled them in order to derive more labor and financial gain from them despite a promise of freedom. The testimonies of enslaved people reveal a wealth of information about them. They demonstrate their knowledge of the court system, the laws of their states and surrounding states, and to whom they turned for assistance. Some learned that residency in a free state or territory before their return to a slave state could be a path to freedom (145). Their use of legal strategies including injunctions and writs of habeas corpus demonstrated the knowledge they and their legal counsel possessed. Court proceedings recorded their family histories, community ties, and harrowing life experiences. Due to the expansive nature...

Mengeksplorasi Argumentasi dan Pengetahuan Pendidik Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam (IPA) Tentang Pemanasan Global

This research isa qualitative research based oncasestudiestoinvestigatethe quality ofthe arguments and personal knowledge of scienceteachers about global warming. Thesubjects ofthis research were 20scienceteachersfromthesamestudy program and university. Data collectiontechniques use interview methods and written arguments. Qualitative analysis of datafrom interviews and written arguments reveals thatsomescienceteachers use evidence during argumentation, butthe evidence used is often not accurate enoughtosupport or refute other people's claims or arguments andsome otherscience teachers use personal perspectivesin argumentation becausescienceteachers have difficulty building evidence-based argumentation. In addition, somescienceteachers have similarities inknowledge about global warming, butthere aresomescienceteachers who differ intheir belief inscientific expertise and thecredibility of scientific evidence. This research is expectedto help increasetheknowledge andskills ofscience teachersto educate global warmingto students and prepare studentsto makethe right decisions about global warming in the future.

Modern aspects of moral health of schools

Moral education is one of the forms of moral inheritance in society. In the perception of modern society moral is a synonym of ethics. Thus, the term «moral education» means the process of the purposeful forming of child moral values and reinforcement the habit complex which is proper to the norms and moral accepted in a society. Nowadays, when the standards of legal cruelty are widely presented in mass media, entertaining programs and computer games which children are involved in since their preschool age, moral education of young people claims special attention. In the present paper the problem of schoolchildren moral development and socialization is considered. Taking into account current pedagogical conditions various approaches to the issue particularly the ways of the modern youth psychological impact efficiency improvement have been analyzed. The results of the conducted research show the need for higher school children socialization level since it’s the basis of the personality development. The importance of innovative pedagogical achievements use in the course of young people moral education is stressed. Moral education is one of the forms of inheritance of morality in society. A moral is in understanding of modern society, is the synonym of ethics. Thus, under moral education it is possible to understand the process of the purposeful forming for the child of the moral settings, and also fixing of habits of conduct, proper to the norms and moral, accepted in society. Presently, when the standards of legal cruelty with people are widely presented in mass medias, entertaining transmissions and films, and also in computer games which children master from preschool age, moral education of children must spare the special attention.

مظاهر استقلالية الهيأة العليا المستقلة لمراقبة الانتخابات دراسة مقارنة في التشريع الجزائري والتونسي

Algeria and Tunisia have seen an important progress in the field of body reformation for election admiq`2 nitration. It was crowned by a creation of an independent higher committee of election in Tunisia; its mission is the organization, the supervision and the control of elections in a complex transitional circumstance that expose radically the breaking with the falsification and fraud of the elector willing. In addition, the constitutional amendment of (2016), in Algeria, has created a new committee of elections’ control called “the independent higher committee of election control” in order to grant the propositions expressed by various society makers. It was organized under a statuary law. As an independent body, it takes care of election and its control without intervention or effect from any other side. This committee is considered among one of the outcomes of the political reformation happened in Algeria where the official authority met the people claims in order to conduct an honest elections corresponding with the international criteria. Thus to guarantee the citizen’ confidence in the elections, to handle the negative accumulation of the past in order to increase the general conscience concerning the election participation importance and the increasing of the occasion of participation of the various categories of the society.

Charismatic Authority and Democratic Legitimation

Almost all political regimes today claim to be democratic, whatever their actual structure. Yet the rhetorical and normative triumph of democracy as an ideal has not prevented the recurrent emergence of claims to authority alongside with, and undermining, the claims of the more abstract institutions of constitutional government, in accordance with impartial, impersonal, and general rules and procedures. And despite the apparent tension between leadership and the rule of the people, such charismatic or personal claims to authority have not always been thought to be in conflict with democracy. In this paper, I argue that the apparent compatibility of and democracy emerges from the fact that authority depends on a form of representation. I illustrate this claim by showing that in the early 20th century (a period marked by a proliferation of claims to authority), many ideologically very diverse writers -- from communists to fascists -- converged on a theory of charisma as representation that could accommodate claims while accepting democratic justifications for authority. Though most of these attempts are no longer credible today, 20th century attempts to construct theories of charisma as representation indicate both the sources of the recurring appeal of authority and modes of political justification and the dangers of attempting to appropriate for democracy.

Racial Reconstruction: Black Inclusion, Chinese Exclusion, and the Fictions of Citizenship by Edlie L. Wong

Reviewed by: Racial Reconstruction: Black Inclusion, Chinese Exclusion, and the Fictions of Citizenship by Edlie L. Wong Lyndsay Campbell Wong, Edlie L. Racial Reconstruction: Black Inclusion, Chinese Exclusion, and the Fictions of Citizenship. New York & London: New York UP, 2015. Pp. 304. Edlie L. Wong's Racial Reconstruction: Black Inclusion, Chinese Exclusion, and the Fictions of Citizenship explores a range of literary texts produced between the 1850s and World War I to show how the processes of racialization of the Chinese diaspora, mainly in the United States, intersected with evolving post-Reconstruction concepts of American citizenship. Wong recovers and examines a variety of largely forgotten literary and journalistic genres about the phenomenon of Chinese immigration to, and presence in, the United States. She threads together the relationships between racializing discourses around African Americans and Chinese residents through an exploration of travel narratives about "coolie" labour in Cuba, journalism exposing white labour's fears in California, apocalyptic Chinese invasion narratives (harbingers of new forms of science fiction), and Chinese and English literary sentimentalism, which protested the treatment of Chinese in the United States and its expanding Pacific empire. Wong's incorporation of transpacific literary forms, including Chinese-language writing, into the corpus of the literature of the United States—which, by extension, would locate American literature in a kind of literature of the Pacific—is one great contribution that this book makes. Employing a highly theorized approach to literary and journalistic texts, Wong's Racial Reconstruction contributes an important chapter to the long, vexed, sad, and complex story of race in America, a story that continues to unfold. Wong demonstrates the roles that norms and assumptions around labour, religion, and family played in the racializing discourses that generated what Wong calls a "dialectical configuration of black inclusion/Chinese exclusion" (3). This "dialectical configuration" structured arguments around the rights of both African Americans and those characterized as Chinese, wherever they were born or raised. She illuminates the wondrous illogic that permitted men viewed as abject virtual slaves (though of course bound by exploitative contracts) to be seen simultaneously as a looming [End Page 334] threat to the very existence of the (white) United States. She suggests how the characterization of African Americans-no longer susceptible to enslavement but still subordinate-inflected the characterization of Chinese residents as fundamentally unassimilable. She shows the absence of Chinese women-because they were legally excluded from the country-being interpreted as a sign of how very different the Chinese in America were in their approaches to familial relations and thus, again, in their assimilability. Wong weaves into the text the way that the supposed "heathenism" of Chinese residents in the United States also set them apart, and she links this religious angle to refusals to accept indigenous people's claims to American citizenship during the same period. I would have been curious to learn more about whether and how characterizations of people of Spanish and Mexican descent in California and the rest of the Southwest also inflected the racialization of Chinese immigrants and their descendants, in the nation as a whole or in the Southwest. Wong's discussion of journalistic depictions of the purported threat to white labour in California suggests that racialization was at least to some extent region-specific, with newspapers and stories-even if they circulated nationally-being interpreted against a regional or local context. Wong's discussion of literary forms is punctuated by treatment of legal milestones-cases and statutes-which created intolerable, frequently unstable, and even incomprehensible legal situations not only for migrant Chinese workers but for their American-born children. The literary and the legal were mutually constitutive. The contemporary echoes make these stories even harder to read than they would be if they could be comfortably relegated to the bad old days of the distant past. Relying on a solid base of legal historical scholarship, Wong describes the development of the doctrine that the decisions of immigration officers are not reviewable in courts and that Congress (not the president, it should be noted) has plenary power to make laws to defend the nation, even though this power is not among the enumerated powers that the states, through...

A Review on Quality of Life in Cancer Patients: An Indian Scenario

Cancer is a major public health concern among million of people worldwide and claims thousands of life. The main aim of this review article was to assess the Quality of life (QOL) in Indian cancer patients. QOL is a vital health outcome measure that can only be described in individual terms. It integrates several aspects of life and takes into account impact of illness and treatment. According to the available articles and literature reviews it is found that most of the patients were leading unsatisfactory QOL. Various domains such as physical, psychological, social dimensions etc are affected which in turn influenced the QOL of the patient. Factors such as pain, reduced working capability, and disturbed sleep pattern were significantly found to be affecting the QOL of cancer patients.

Ten Above-Ground Legal Risks That Can Sink Your Project: What They Are and Tools to Assess and Mitigate

Risk Assessment is crucial to extractive project success, but yet the main above-ground risks are frequently either unknown or ignored, often because they are difficult to quantify. Top Above-Ground Risks that need to be assessed by a mining project, whether in Canada or abroad: 1. Risks related to Indigenous People claims. These risks have recently increased dramatically as a result of Canada’s signing the UN Assembly Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People in 2016. 2. Bribe Demands by government. 3. Direct Expropriation Risks. 4. Indirect or creeping expropriations by government. 5. Regulatory changes which adversely affect the company’s operations. 6. Improper actions by governments in making environmental assessments of projects resulting in denial of permits. 7. Disputes with a government for which there is no legal mechanism to settle the dispute, or courts of the host state are ineffective, so government controls the outcome. 8. Reputational risks that affect the company’s future prospects (many reputational risks have little or no effect on the company, but some risks can be huge). 9. Nullification of agreements entered into with governments to stabilize the operations of the project. 10. Legal disappearance of a counter-party involved in the project (particularly government parties). The paper will discuss each of these risks as well as potential tools to mitigate these risks. The tools will include: 1. Political Risk Insurance - understanding this type of insurance and benefits of using various insurers such as World Bank, commercial insurers, export credit agencies. 2. Financing through lenders with sufficient political or economic power to provide protections against many of the risks. 3. Using International Investment Agreements to protect the project (even if the project is in Canada). 4. Due Diligence using experts in the particular field of investigation. 5. Obtaining advice from experts who really understand these issues in depth. 6. Ensuring existence of international arbitration provisions to settle disputes. The paper is based largely on research done by the author, as the developer and teacher at of courses on international legal business risk management Athabasca University Executive MBA program. Over 100 company managers participated in the research.

Between Security and Mobility: Negotiating a Hardening Border Regime in the Russian-Estonian Borderland

Since the end of the cold war order post-Soviet borders have been characterised by geopolitical tensions and divergent imaginations of desirable political and spatial orders. Drawing upon ethnographic research in two border towns at the Russian-Estonian border, the article makes a case for a grounded examination of these border dynamics that takes into account how borders as sites of ‘mobility and enclosure’ are negotiated in everyday life and shaped by the differentiated incorporations of statecraft into people's lives. Depending on their historical memories, people interpret the border either as a barrier to previously free movement or as a security device and engage in correspondingly different relations to the state—privileging local concerns for mobility or adopting the state's concerns over security and sovereignty. Analysing these border negotiations and the relations between citizens and the state, articulated in people's expectations and claims, can provide us with a better understanding of how people participate in the making of borders and contribute to the stability and malleability of political orders.

Who Are the Jews? New Formulations of an Age-Old Question

This commentary contrasts two recent scholarly works on the possibility of a biological basis for “Jewishness.” Harry Ostrer’s Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People claims a strong shared genetic component of Jewish ancestry tracing to the Levant, extending so far as to suggest a biological basis for Jewishness. Nadia Abu El-Haj’s The Genealogical Science: The Search for Jewish Origins and the Politics of Epistemology adopts a skeptical perspective on contemporary genetics and claims that genetic studies of the Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA cannot be viewed as supporting a common Jewish ancestry. The disagreement is consequential, and the arguments can be understood in terms of differences in the audiences, styles of reasoning, and social and political perspectives for the two works. A synthesis is proposed for helping to articulate a space between the two opposing views.

Commentary: Who are the Jews? New formulations of an age-old question.

This commentary contrasts two recent scholarly works on the possibility of a biological basis for "Jewishness." Harry Ostrer's Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People claims a strong shared genetic component of Jewish ancestry tracing to the Levant, extending so far as to suggest a biological basis for Jewishness. Nadia Abu El-Haj's The Genealogical Science: The Search for Jewish Origins and the Politics of Epistemology adopts a skeptical perspective on contemporary genetics and claims that genetic studies of the Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA cannot be viewed as supporting a common Jewish ancestry. The disagreement is consequential, and the arguments can be understood in terms of differences in the audiences, styles of reasoning, and social and political perspectives for the two works. A synthesis is proposed for helping to articulate a space between the two opposing views.

Entertaining elephants: animal agency and the business of the American circus

Consider the career of an enduring if controversial icon of American entertainment: the genial circus elephant. In Entertaining Elephants Susan Nance examines elephant behavior - drawing on the scientific literature of animal cognition, learning, and communications - to offer a study of elephants as actors (rather than objects) in American circus entertainment between 1800 and 1940. By developing a deeper understanding of animal behavior, Nance asserts, we can more fully explain the common history of all species. Entertaining Elephants is the first account that uses research on animal welfare, health, and cognition to interpret the historical record, examining how both circus people and elephants struggled behind the scenes to meet the profit necessities of the entertainment business. The book does not claim that elephants understood, endorsed, or resisted the world of show business as a human cultural or business practice, but it does speak of elephants rejecting the conditions of their experience. They lived in a kind of parallel reality in the circus, one that was defined by their interactions with people, other elephants, horses, bull hooks, hay, and the weather. Nance's study informs and complicates contemporary debates over human interactions with animals in entertainment and beyond, questioning the idea of human control over animals and people's claims to speak for them. As sentient beings, these elephants exercised agency, but they had no way of understanding the human cultures that created their captivity, and they obviously had no claim on (human) social and political power. They often lived lives of apparent desperation.