People In Developing Countries Research Articles

An evaluation of monetary and non-monetary techniques for assessing the importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services to people in countries with developing economies

Biodiversity supports a range of ecosystems services that are of fundamental importance to people in poor countries. Economic valuation of biodiversity is important for the development of policies that protect biodiversity and alleviate poverty. This paper provides an evaluation of monetary and non-monetary techniques for assessing the value of biodiversity to people in least developed countries (LDCs). Specifically, research questions include:1)To what extent have monetary and non-monetary techniques been used to assess the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services in LDCs?2)What are the key methodological, practical, epistemological and policy challenges to assessing the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services in LDCs?3)How can valuation methods be improved to allow more accurate valuation in LDCs?

Simultaneous indoor and outdoor on-line hourly monitoring of atmospheric volatile organic compounds in an urban building. The role of inside and outside sources

Indoor air quality (IAQ) has become a very important issue in recent years. As in developed countries people spend more than 90% of their time indoors, besides outdoor pollution assessment, the indoor one is also required. IAQ is not only affected by indoor sources linked to indoor activities, outdoor sources such as road or street traffic and industrial and commercial activities have their role too. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) frequently show higher indoor mixing ratios with respect to the outdoor ones, and monitoring is required to report their indoor mixing ratios.Many studies have reported average indoor VOCs' mixing ratios in different environments, but their temporal variability has not been well documented. The main objective of this work was to simultaneously measure VOCs' indoor and outdoor mixing ratios with high time-resolution in order to assess the effect of sources inside and outside the building upon indoor mixing ratios of individual VOCs. Simultaneous hourly, continuous, and on-line measurements of C2–C11 VOCs were performed inside and outside the School of Engineering of Bilbao (ETSI) building, located in the city center of Bilbao, an urban area in Northern Spain.The analysis of simultaneous data allowed the classification of VOCs based on their main sources. Some VOCs were mainly emitted by indoor sources (1-pentene, 2-methylpentane, n-hexane, methylcyclopentane, benzene, 1-heptene+2,2,4-trimethylbenzene, and tetrachloroethylene) or by outdoor sources (n-heptane, C8 alkanes except trimethylpentanes and C9 aromatics). Other VOCs, such as toluene, were emitted by both indoor and outdoor sources. The isoprene indoor pattern indicated that its main indoor source could be the air exhaled by people occupying the building. Some halocarbons, such as trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and carbon tetrachloride may be generated from the use inside the building of chlorine bleach containing products.

Need to implement the environmental ethics to protect the society: A study on global perspectives for sustainable development

Environmental ethics is one of the most important modern environmental conservation and sustainable development tools and involves in the early history of human civilizations. It has already been a global issue due to its implications in the development discoursed. But most of the people in the underdeveloped and developed countries people are not aware about its importance. Considering the environmental ethics, it is very easy for all to carry out their duties and responsibilities properly that may lead to the sustainable development which we could not hope for; a peaceful and happy environment for our generations on this earth. It is in fact a human virtue supported by the religions on this earth. It is interlinked with the sustainable environment and development. It teaches us to be healthy and friendly to the global environment and development. This virtue is basically based on the international humanitarian law, international human rights, and course the international environmental law under the public international law. The modern societies including the United Nations Organization (UNO) and its specialized agencies, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and other national and regional organizations, etc; have been playing critical role in the process of implementing on the need for the environmental ethics for our society in order to attain the sustainable development. The compliance with the existing laws and policies along with the environmental ethics are also crucial for our existence on this earth, our home. It deals with the environmental rights, moral education, traditional knowledge and the environmental conservation issues, etc; which are very important for our sustainable development on this earth. This study will provide a critical overview of the environmental ethics in our daily life linking with the moral educations for sustainable development as mentioned in the international legal foundations as well as in the religious considerations with other relevant mechanisms based on the primary and secondary sources consisting of 25 respondents in the different criteria such as lecturers, students, professional peoples, businessman, etc. in Melaka, Malaysia. Key words: Environmental ethics, sustainable development.

Public works programmes as a tool to address unemployment and skills shortages among the youth in South Africa

There are over a billion young adults between the ages of 15 and 24 years in the world. It is estimated that 85% of these young working-age adults live in developing countries which offer few opportunities for productive work. One of the greatest challenges facing the world and South Africa is to enhance the skills level of young people in developing countries. Young people in South Africa account for approximately 60% of the working age population and also account for 70% of all unemployed persons in South Africa. In order to address both the problem of low skills level and the rising unemployment level, the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP) can be used as a starting point. History has shown that labour-intensive methods of production (labour-intensive traditional methods) have long been used in creating remarkable infrastructure projects. Investment in infrastructure has a huge potential to redress the high unemployment and poverty levels in South Africa and also to correct the skills deficits in disadvantaged communities. From a theoretical perspective, supported by experience elsewhere in Africa, there are reasons for considering that properly formulated labour-intensive public works programmes and projects could be established to construct and maintain the required physical infrastructure, thus creating employment, skills and institutional capacities. This paper will explore the past African experiences in implementing public works programmes and projects with regard to their successes and problems. The paper will then examine how initiatives such as skills development and the Expanded Public Works Programmes (EPWP) can be used to address the low skills level and the rising level of unemployment in South Africa. The paper closes with some recommendations for skills development in the future. Key words: Labour-intensive, public works, poverty, unemployment, skills.

Current phytotherapy an inter-regional perspective on policy, research and development of herbal medicine

This article aimed at evaluating inter-regional differences in herbal drug policies, with a view to influencing such policies towards a more vibrant approach that will promote the registration, production and clinical trial of herbal remedies worldwide. The review drew attention to the impact of different national policies on the status and movement of herbal remedies in the world market and revealed a striking paradox - that about 80% of people in developing countries depended on herbs, but contributed only 7.2% to the trade in 1999. By contrast, the developed nations, where people relied less on herbs, contributed 55.2%. Asia, less Japan and South Korea, contributed 37.6%. Equally interesting is the comparison of Brazil with Nigeria. Both are rich in biodiversity and have high populations that depend substantially on herbs. However, while herbs contributed an unknown amount to the Nigerian economy in 2007, in Brazil it contributed US$ 160 million - a whopping 20% of Nigeria’s federal budget for health ($800 million) in 2007. These findings led us to conclude that developing countries need strategies that will promote herbal medicine. The comparison of Brazil with Nigeria revealed that with proper strategies herbal drugs can indeed contribute substantially to any economy.

Lifestyle Risk Factors: Do they contribute to chronic kidney disease in developing countries?

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the worlds major public health issues. Many people in developing-countries adopt unhealthy western lifestyle which predisposes them to non-communicable diseases. Though, chronic glomerulonephritis may be the leading cause of CKD in these countries, studies in some developing-countries document that lifestyle risk factors are emerging as important in CKD.In Nigeria, though CKD constitutes 8% of hospital admissions, there is no known population- based study on CKD.This study, an arm of a larger project on early detection of CKD in Nigeria, examined modifiable lifestyle risk factors in relation to markers of CKD.

Interventions for young people in Australia to reduce HIV and sexually transmissible infections: a systematic review

Like young people in other developed countries, sexually active young Australians can have an increased risk of acquiring sexually transmissible infections (STIs). This paper reviews intervention programs that aim to reduce the incidence and transmission of HIV and STIs among young people in Australia. Articles were identified from seven databases. Intervention studies conducted in Australia that included young people aged 12-25 years were reviewed. A two-dimensional matrix consisting of 'setting' and 'intervention type' was developed to categorize each study. Forty-two studies met the inclusion criteria, and the majority were uncontrolled intervention studies. Of these, 23/42 studies measured participation in chlamydia +/- other STI testing and found that the highest participation rates took place in non-clinical and non-general practice health care settings. Four studies facilitated access to testing indirectly, through the internet or other media. Ten studies involved the provision of education and measured its impact on factors such as knowledge, attitudes and/or behaviour. Three studies involved novel immunisation strategies for either hepatitis B or human papillomavirus vaccines. Two studies evaluated the impact of enhanced STI surveillance programs on prevalence rates. Proactive STI testing in non-clinical and some health settings appears feasible and achieves higher testing rates than in general practice; however, more evaluation of testing strategies in general practice settings is required. New technologies such as the internet and SMS are useful adjuncts for influencing behaviours such as condom use and STI testing. Media campaigns that promote STI testing can have a positive impact on testing rates.

Mental health inequalities and mental health nursing

Reducing inequalities in health, including mental health, is of high priority in many national policies. However, it is not yet known how mental health nurses might respond to these policies. Using examples from the available evidence, we argue that the causes of mental health inequalities are complex and thought to arise from fundamental divisions in society. These divisions are formed by social relationships, which are influenced by deep social structures, such as the economy or culture. The extensive range of social determinants means that there is no single explanation of why inequalities in mental health might occur. It also suggests that these determinants may act synergistically to create pockets of inequity where health needs are most complex. This poses difficult challenges for mental health nurses who undoubtedly have a key role in addressing mental health inequalities, although their role is likely to be restricted to service redesign and delivery. Mental health nurses are unlikely to address some of the deeper structural determinants of mental health inequalities, such as poverty, which can only be tackled through government-led reforms. Furthermore, we must be mindful of the possibility that services offered by mental nurses may have an uneven uptake across social classes, which in turn could serve to maintain or worsen mental health inequalities. Therefore, a key question for mental health nursing, policy and training is whether these limitations are clearly recognized.

Transgenic Crops: Opportunities and Risks

Crop productivity and land use must be optimised in the next few decades, if we are to feed a growing human population. Transgenic crops offer many opportunities to help increase crop yields and food quality, contributing as well to a sustainable agriculture. Herbicide tolerant and insect resistant GM crops, cultivated in steadily increasing areas for almost 15 years, have produced higher yields, and have reduced the use of toxic pesticides and CO2 emissions. Drought and salt tolerant transgenic crops, now under development, will further boost productivity and contribute to extend arable land to marginal soils, while biofortified food crops will help low-income people in developing countries to overcome nutritional deficiencies. Despite these possibilities, there is a strong opposition to GM crops in the EU, which is hampering not only the use of the biotech crops available at present, but also research and development on new varieties. The arguments of ‘green’ activists are based on the high risks for human health and the environment, supposedly associated with the use of GM plants in agriculture. However, most of their claims are not supported by sound scientific data, some of the potential risks are negligible or, if not, are avoided before the GM crop reaches the market, or controlled in the fields using appropriate management strategies.

Product development and innovation for developing countries

PurposeBetween the lack of incentives for larger international companies and the lack of resources of the local companies the majority of the people in less developed countries never benefit from new products. International companies generally offer modified product offerings to consumers in developing countries. To date, their attempts to penetrate the developing country markets have not been successful. The reasons for this failure in their attempts to succeed in these markets include the prohibitive cost of developing entirely new products for this market and the low‐income levels of the families in these countries. To succeed in developing countries, international companies have to observe and study their customers' needs and uncover the problem areas. There are many approaches available to accomplish this process including systematic innovation and the seven R's. Each approach focuses on the consumer and suggests a radical approach to developing new products. The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction and overview of new product development in emerging countries.Design/methodology/approachChallenges, process, and success strategies are explored.FindingsTo succeed in developing countries, international companies have to observe and study their customers' needs and uncover the problem areas. The authors suggest an approach that focuses on the consumer and suggests a radical approach to developing new products – the limitations/constraints point of view. The single biggest constraint in developing products for less developed countries is affordability (price). Unlike the new product development process that is practiced in industrialized countries, international companies wanting to be successful in less developed countries should start with the customers' affordability and value‐added point of view and then work backwards to develop products/services for these countries.Practical implicationsInternational companies are provided with an approach to new product development in emerging countries.Originality/valueNew product development in emerging countries is likely to become increasingly important, and there is very little research on the topic. The value of this paper is in its overview of the challenges of new product development in emerging countries, and suggested solutions.

Helminths and the IBD hygiene hypothesis

Helminths are parasitic animals that have evolved over 100,000,000 years to live in the intestinal track or other locations of their hosts. Colonization of humans with these organisms was nearly universal until the early 20th century. More than 1,000,000,000 people in less developed countries carry helminths even today. Helminths must quell their host's immune system to successfully colonize. It is likely that helminths sense hostile changes in the local host environment and take action to control such responses. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) probably results from an inappropriately vigorous immune response to contents of the intestinal lumen. Environmental factors strongly affect the risk for IBD. People living in less developed countries are protected from IBD. The "IBD hygiene hypothesis" states that raising children in extremely hygienic environments negatively affects immune development, which predisposes them to immunological diseases like IBD later in life. Modern day absence of exposure to intestinal helminths appears to be an important environmental factor contributing to development of these illnesses. Helminths interact with both host innate and adoptive immunity to stimulate immune regulatory circuitry and to dampen effector pathways that drive aberrant inflammation. The first prototype worm therapies directed against immunological diseases are now under study in the United States and various countries around the world. Additional studies are in the advanced planning stage.

Fighting the diseases of poverty

Public discussion of global healthcare issues is dominated by those who believe that top-down, government-driven interventions are the solution to the myriad health problems suffered by people in less developed countries. This thinking is responsible for a plethora of harmful policies, ranging from a drive towards socialized healthcare systems, to calls for the centralization and semi-nationalization of pharmaceutical research and development, to impractical but grandiose UN-sponsored schemes for tackling HIV/AIDS and malaria.In spite of the abysmal track record of top-down approaches, non-governmental organizations and UN agencies continue to promote them, to the detriment of the private sector, economic development and human health. The resulting politicization of diseases such as HIV/AIDS has led to a diversion of resources away from more easily treatable diseases that affect more people. Meanwhile, cost-effective and simple interventions such as vaccination are being subordinated to other more politically correct diseases.This centralizing mindset has also resulted in many governments in less developed countries attempting to plan and control universal healthcare systems, which has encouraged rationing, inequitable access and entrenched corruption. It has also seriously undermined the effectiveness of overseas development aid. Moreover, the politicization of diseases such as HIV/AIDS has led to a diversion of resources away from more easily treatable diseases that affect more people. As a result, cost-effective and simple interventions are neglected by donors.There has to date been little public discussion of the role of markets and their underlying institutions - property rights and the rule of law - in improving human health. Economic growth and globalization has led to unprecedented improvements in human health. The challenge is to enable the poorest countries to take part more fully in this process. This work demonstrates how current thinking is flawed, and proposes practical ways of improving health in lower income countries.

A matter of facts… and more: an exploratory analysis of the content of sexuality education in The Netherlands

The Netherlands is often recognized for its approach to adolescent sexual health, noted by the country's low rates of teen pregnancy and high contraceptive use among young people. Different studies have compared the sexual health outcomes of youth in The Netherlands with those of young people in other developed countries, and, to varying degrees, have discussed determinants related to the observed differences. Many have concluded that comprehensive sexuality education is one of the key factors contributing to the positive sexual health outcomes in The Netherlands, but few studies have looked at how Dutch sex education policy is translated into action. There is a lack of information on the content of Dutch sexuality education materials and programs. Such information is necessary for a better understanding of sexuality education in The Netherlands. This article presents a comparison of sexual health outcomes of young people in The Netherlands and the United States using the latest available data. This is followed by results of a content analysis of sexuality education materials in The Netherlands and a case study of a widely used Dutch high school sexuality program.

The Human Rights Effects of World Bank Structural Adjustment, 1981-2000

Does the implementation of a World Bank structural adjustment agreement (SAA) increase or decrease government respect for human rights? Neoliberal theory suggests that SAAs improve economic performance, generating better human rights practices. Critics contend that the implementation of structural adjustment conditions causes hardships and higher levels of domestic conflict, increasing the likelihood that regimes will use repression. Bivariate probit models are used to account for World Bank loan selection criteria when estimating the human rights consequences of structural adjustment. Using a global, comparative analysis for the 1981‐2000 period, we examine the effects of structural adjustment on government respect for citizens’ rights to freedom from torture, political imprisonment, extra-judicial killing, and disappearances. The findings show that World Bank SAAs worsen government respect for physical integrity rights. World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) structural adjustment conditions require loan recipient governments to rapidly liberalize their economies. According to previous research, these economic changes often cause at least shortterm hardships for the poorest people in less developed countries. The Bank and IMF justify the loan conditions as necessary stimuli for economic development. However, research has shown that implementation of structural adjustment conditions actually has a negative effect on economic growth (Przeworski and Vreeland 2000; Vreeland 2003). While there has been less research on the human rights effects of structural adjustment conditions, most studies agree that the imposition of structural adjustment agreements (SAAs) on less developed countries worsens government human rights practices (Pion-Berlin 1984; McLaren 1988; Franklin 1997; Camp Keith and Poe 2000). This study focuses on the effects of structural adjustment conditions on the extent to which governments protect their citizens from extra-judicial killing, torture, disappearances, and political imprisonment.

The librarian as video game player

Despite media coverage that is usually negative or non-existent, digital (video) game playing is a major form of entertainment for significant numbers of people in developed countries. This paper begins with a brief outline of what these games are, who plays them and why there is interest within the library community. We then move through several examples of the current direct impact of digital games on libraries. This is followed by more abstract examples of how video games could, and do, influence library practise and technology. Attributes of online games are discussed, focusing on one particular game, Second Life. This game is used widely within the library community, with many librarians spending significant time developing avatars, open services and infrastructure. The paper concludes with a summary of the ten attributes of video game players, found across the research literature body, that are of relevance to digital information and library services.

25th volume celebration paper Policies for the aged in the 21st century: more ‘structured dependency’ or the realisation of human rights?

By the late 20th century, the plight of millions of older people in many developed countries was regarded as serious and was acknowledged to require concerted cross-national remedial action. Sociologists and social gerontologists only then were beginning to put together explanations rooted in the evolution of social policy and its corresponding institutions. One thesis that attracted support was that the dependency of the aged had been ‘structured’ by long-term economic and social policies. During the final decades of the 20th century, older people were perceived and treated, according to accumulating research evidence, as more dependent than they really were or needed to be. This had been fostered by the emerging institutions of retirement, income maintenance, and residential and domiciliary care. This development had been the responsibility primarily of the State, which tried to deliver welfare but also to accommodate the market. Forms of discrimination against older people had become, or continued to be, as deep as forms of discrimination against women and ethnic minorities. Such ‘institutionalised ageism’ had to be countered. Hopes were invested in anti-discriminatory policies that reflected good reciprocal relationships between the generations in many families and the rights of individuals of any age to human dignity and opportunities to practise their skills. The globalisation of the market and affiliation to neo-liberal policies, together with the simultaneous passage of various instruments of human rights, have changed the nature of the problem, and therefore the debate, during the early 21st century. This paper argues that the release and implementation during and after the Second World War of collective liberal egalitarian values, expressed in many countries in international statements on human rights, as will be shown, had a big impact on the design of public services, including those for older people. If the claims for the elderly in the welfare states of 50 years ago were exaggerated, as we can now safely conclude, the claims for older people today are even more exaggerated – at a time of heightened emphasis on individual rights and individual market powers. The various problems of ‘structured’ dependency persist, and seem set to grow in many parts of the world. Human rights offer a framework of rigorous analysis and anti-discriminatory work. Success depends on good operational measurement, and the incorporation of international and national institutions and policies that reflect those rights.

Commentary: The evolving role of nurses in terrorism and war

The health care needs of people in both developed and underdeveloped countries experiencing violent conflict are strikingly similar. Nurses are key for infectious disease detection and control, social support, and rehabilitation during terrorism and war in many countries. Nurses already provide much of the care in these situations because they are present on a day-to-day basis, have key clinical and organizational skills, and tend to enjoy a high level of popular trust. There is a great potential for the profession to do more with systems training, skill development, and participation in policy and research related to reducing the effects of conflict. This is applicable for both terrorist events in developed countries and for humanitarian crises in developing countries. However, nurses have frequently been invisible, serving without discipline-specific orientation. This is partly the result of unresolved ethical and political issues among nursing leaders regarding the image and role of nursing, humanist values, and relations between the profession and the government. Major nursing organizations frequently support national pro-war policies, whereas nursing leaders more often stress support for an international humanitarian orientation. These issues have been with organized nursing since its origins with Florence Nightingale. With better organization, autonomy, and recognition of nursing's unique contributions, nursing can achieve much more in situations of conflict to prevent harm and facilitate recovery among individuals, families, and their communities. Elements of an agenda for nursing research and development are detailed. (Am J Infect Control 2003;31:163-7.)

Treatment of Hypertension in the Elderly

Hypertension is a common condition among older people in most developed countries, and is a very important, if not the most important, risk factor for all subtypes of vascular disease and death. Many clinical trials in older people have demonstrated significant reductions in myocardial infarctions and strokes when antihypertensive drugs are provided. Lifestyle modifications are still recommended because they can lower a surrogate end point--blood pressure--but there are no data showing they reduce event rates. It is not appropriate to limit the choice of initial drug for hypertensive older individuals to a single class of agents, since so many older people have other medical problems that affect this decision. Monotherapy with an alpha blocker, however, is no longer recommended, even for men with hypertension and benign prostatic hypertrophy, as doxazosin was associated with a higher rate of cardiovascular events in the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. The classic strategy of an initial diuretic (for at least 1 month) will likely be verified by the final results of ongoing randomized trials, expected in 2003. Until then, this strategy is effective, inexpensive, and unlikely to cause many adverse effects. Probably the most important exhortation, however, should be to achieve the blood pressure goal appropriate for the patient's risk status. Numerous clinical trials in older hypertensive patients have shown that more benefits accrue when the goal blood pressure is achieved than if a specific antihypertensive agent is chosen as initial therapy. Future cardiovascular risk may be related directly to the blood pressure attained, rather than to how it was attained.

Psychiatric epidemiology: selected recent advances and future directions.

Reviewed in this article are selected recent advances and future challenges for psychiatric epidemiology. Major advances in descriptive psychiatric epidemiology in recent years include the development of reliable and valid fully structured diagnostic interviews, the implementation of parallel cross-national surveys of the prevalences and correlates of mental disorders, and the initiation of research in clinical epidemiology. Remaining challenges include the refinement of diagnostic categories and criteria, recognition and evaluation of systematic underreporting bias in surveys of mental disorders, creation and use of accurate assessment tools for studying disorders of children, adolescents, the elderly, and people in less developed countries, and setting up systems to carry out small area estimations for needs assessment and programme planning. Advances in analytical and experimental epidemiology have been more modest. A major challenge is for psychiatric epidemiologists to increase the relevance of their analytical research to their colleagues in preventative psychiatry as well as to social policy analysts. Another challenge is to develop interventions aimed at increasing the proportion of people with mental disorders who receive treatment. Despite encouraging advances, much work still needs to be conducted before psychiatric epidemiology can realize its potential to improve the mental health of populations.

The urban transportation crisis in developing countries: alternative policies for an equitable space

Planners in developing countries have tended to use transport modelling techniques designed by and developed for cities in the west. Besides being unsuitable, they are inappropriate to the everyday needs of people in developing countries. Planners must reassess their approach, rid themselves of their assumptions and begin by asking a new set of questions. (A)