Pentaclethra Macrophylla Research Articles

Screening of ten wild fruits extracts from Cameroon’s flora for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential

Background: Wild edible fruits are good source of phenolic compounds such as anthocyanins. Those compounds are known for their anti-inflammatory potential. They interact with many mediators of the physiopathological pathway such as NF-kB which is at a central position in the inflammatory response in macrophages. This study aimed to determine the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of ten wild edible fruits aqueous extracts. Methods: The antioxidant potential was evaluate through the DPPH, ABTS and OH radical scavenging activity; the ferric reducing agent power and the total antioxidant capacity assessment. Also, the total phenolic and flavonoids, anthocyanins compounds and vitamin C content were assayed. For the anti-inflammatory activity, a primary macrophage culture was used. Inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO), alkaline phosphatase, NADPH oxidase and 5-lipoxigenase activity was assayed. Results: Alchornea cordifolia and Pentaclethra macrophylla extracts showed the greatest antioxidant activity respectively (Antiradical power (AP)=5.82 mol of DPPH/mg of extract and AP=5.05 mol of DPPH/mg of extract for DPPH scavenging assay); (IC50=1.62µg/ml and IC50=1.60µg/ml for ABTS radical scavenging assay); (IC50=32.67µg/ml and IC50=70.01µg/ml for OH radical scavenging assay) and (EC50=54.06µg/ml and EC50=17.46µg/ml for ferric reducing antioxidant power) with a non-significant difference with the reference compound. For the anti-inflammatory activity, firstly it has been observed that Alchornea cordifolia’s extract exhibits the greatest potential against NADPH oxidase activity inhibition (IC50=36.20µg/ml); alkaline phosphatase activation (EC50=0.27µg/ml) with non-significant difference with the reference compound. Secondly, Pentaclethra macrophylla’s extract demonstrated a high ability to inhibit NO production (IC50=5.79µg/ml) and 5-lipoxigenase (IC50=1.41µg/ml). Conclusion: From the results obtained the assessed wild fruit extracts appears to be good sources for anti-inflammatory and antioxidant bioactive molecules. They could be beneficial for the research of new modulators for the management of inflammatory disorders.

Aspects of molar form and dietary proclivities of African colobines

This study investigates aspects of molar form in three African colobine species: Colobus polykomos, Colobus angolensis, and Piliocolobus badius. Our samples of C. polykomos and P. badius are from the Taï Forest, Ivory Coast; our sample of C. angolensis is from Diani, Kenya. To the extent that protective layers surrounding seeds are hard, we predicted that molar features related to hard-object feeding would be more pronounced in Colobus than they are Piliocolobus, as seed-eating generally occurs at higher frequencies in species of the former. We further predicted that among the colobines we studied, these features would be most pronounced in Taï Forest C. polykomos, which feeds on Pentaclethra macrophylla seeds encased within hard and tough seed pods. We compared overall enamel thickness, enamel thickness distribution, absolute crown strength, cusp tip geometry, and flare among molar samples. Sample sizes per species and molar type varied per comparison. We predicted differences in all variables except overall enamel thickness, which we expected would be invariant among colobines as a result of selection for thin enamel in these folivorous species. Of the variables we examined, only molar flare differed significantly between Colobus and Piliocolobus. Our findings suggest that molar flare, an ancient feature of cercopithecoid molars, was retained in Colobus but not in Piliocolobus, perhaps as a result of differences in the seed-eating proclivities of the two genera. Contrary to predictions, none of the aspects of molar form we investigated tracked current dietary differences in seed-eating between the two Colobus species. Finally, we explored the possibility that molar flare and absolute crown strength, when analyzed together, might afford greater differentiation among these colobine species. A multivariate t test of molar flare and absolute crown strength differentiated C. polykomos and P. badius, possibly reflecting known niche divergence between these two sympatric Taï Forest species.

Characterization and Antimicrobial Profiling of Ethanol-Toluene Extract of Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth Pod

The research reports the characterization and antimicrobial profiling of an ethanol-toluene extract of the Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth pod. The sample was powdered and extracted with a solvent system of ethanol-toluene (2:1). The extract was characterized with Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Gas Chromatographic-Mass Spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis, as well as a wet analysis investigation. The qualitative and quantitative analysis reveals the presence of flavonoids (0.307), phenols (0.4545), alkaloids (1.7165), tannins (6.118), saponins (5.700), and glycosides (0.2375). The FTIR revealed the presence of 1723cm-1, which was assigned to carbonyl groups, and the peaks within the range of 3416.10–3777.54cm-1 were attributed to hydroxyl groups. The GC-MS reveals the presence of 34 molecules in the chromatogram, which is consistent with the mass spectra. The ethanol-toluene extract contains 19 guaiacyl and its derivatives, as well as 15 syringyl and its derivatives. The molecule, propenylsyringol (cis)b has the highest yield based on the height of the peak. Other lignin-derived molecules with a good percentage of extraction were vanillin, syringaldehyde and synapylalcohol (cis). The antimicrobial analysis of the extract was tested on nine pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus bacilli, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Candida species, Aspergillus Niger, Penicillium spp., Fusarium spp., and Aspergillus fumigates). The result therefore reveals that the ethanol-toluene extract of PMBP was more effective on S. pyogenes (0.9mm), P. bacilli (0.5 mm), and Fusarium spp. (0.9mm) at the MIC of 6.25mg/mL. The standard antimicrobial agents, Focknazol (antifungal) and Ciprotab (antibacterial), have the highest zone inhibition at an MIC of 6.25mg/mL, when compared with the ethanol-toluene extract of Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth pod. The ethanol-toluene extract of the Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth pod can be used as a source of guaiacyl or syringyl derivatives and also clinically since it is sensitive to some pathogens.

Ocular hypotensive effect of fermented Pentaclethra macrophylla seeds in experimentally-induced glaucoma

ABSTRACT The study aimed to investigate the effect of fermented n-hexane extract of Pentaclethra macrophylla seeds (FPMSE) in an experimental model of glaucoma. Eighteen rabbits (1-1.8 kg body weight) were allocated into six groups of three rabbits (six eyes per group). Group 1 was the normal control. Ocular hypertension was induced with 1% prednisolone acetate ophthalmic solution in groups 2-6, twice daily for 21 days. Group 2 received no treatment, while groups 3–6 received 5 mg/kg b.w. acetazolamide, 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg b.w. extract, respectively. The intraocular pressures and other biochemical parameters were evaluated. The existence of bioactive compounds was determined via phytochemical analysis. Compared to group 2, the administration of FPMSE resulted in a significant decrease in IOP in the treated groups. Malondialdehyde concentrations in the treated groups’ aqueous humor and plasma were considerably lower (p < 0.05) than in group 2. Compared to group 2, glutathione, nitric oxide, and antioxidant levels improved significantly (p < 0.05). C-reactive protein and glutamate levels in group 2 were comparable (p > 0.05). FPMSE substantially reduced phospholipase A2 activity. Histological assessment of the ciliary body showed adequate pigmentations in the treatment groups compared to group 2. Hence, FPMSE possesses ocular hypotensive effects.

Optimization Analysis of Hardness Test for Powdered Pentaclethra macrophylla Pod /Bio-Epoxy Resin Based Brake Pad Composite Using Central Composite Design

This work examined the optimization of hardness test for Powdered Pentaclethra macrophylla Pod /Bio-Epoxy Resin Based Brake Pad Composite Using Central Composite Design. The Pentaclethra macrophylla pod was manually cleaned and sun-dried for about three hours per day for three days. The sun-dried Pentaclethra macrophylla pod was later ovum dried at a temperature of about 110oC for three hours to achieve a constant weight and subsequently allowed to cool to room temperature. The ovum-dried Pentaclethra macrophylla pod was crushed to powder form using locally fabricated grinding machine and sieved. Part of the sieved powdered pod was carbonized in a heat treatment furnace at a temperature of about 950oC. Pre-impregnated process was used to prepare the brake pad composite samples. The weights of the powdered Pentaclethra macrophylla pods and bio-epoxy resin were varied while those of the lubricant, abrasives, friction modifier, catalyst and accelerator were kept constant The weights of the reinforcement i.e. powdered Pentaclethra macrophylla pods were varied between 10 wt. % and 50 wt. % at an interval of 10 wt. %. The formulation was poured into a wooden mould 50 mm × 50 mm × 8 mm placed in a hot platen press at temperature of about 180oC, a moulding pressure of 15MPa and a curing time of 5 minutes. Post-heat treatment of the composites was performed in a hot air oven for a period of 4 hours at 180 °C. The produced brake pads were evaluated for hardness in accordance to ASTM D785 standard using Rockwell Scale K hardness testing machine. The results of the test showed that 150μm particle size reinforced brake pad sample had higher hardness values of 105.7 and 106.4 at 20wt. % and 30wt. % respectively. This result was also confirmed by the Central composite design (CCD) where maximum hardness values of 107.31 and 107.63 were obtained at 20wt. % and 30wt. % respectively.

Impact of Ultrasonication on African Oil Bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth) Protein Extraction and Properties.

African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth) is an underutilised edible oil seed that could represent a sustainable protein source. In this study, the impact of ultrasonication on the extraction efficiency and properties of protein from African oil bean (AOB) seeds was evaluated. The increase in the duration of extraction favoured the extraction of AOB proteins. This was observed by an increase in extraction yield from 24% to 42% (w/w) when the extraction time was increased from 15 min to 60 min. Desirable properties were observed in extracted AOB proteins; the amino acid profile of protein isolates revealed higher ratios of hydrophobic to hydrophilic amino acids compared to those of the defatted seeds, suggesting alterations in their functional properties. This was also supported by the higher proportion of hydrophobic amino acids and high surface hydrophobicity index value (3813) in AOB protein isolates. The foaming capacity of AOB proteins was above 200%, with an average foaming stability of 92%. The results indicate that AOB protein isolates can be considered promising food ingredients and could help stimulate the growth of the food industry in tropical Sub-Saharan regions where AOB seeds thrive.

Wood Density Determination with the Perspective to Decarbonisation of Tropical Forest Species from the Luki Biosphere Reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Specimens of the forest species such as Pentaclethra macrophylla, Petersianthus macrocarpus, Pycnanthus angolensis and Terminalia superba have been sampled from LUKI Biosphere reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in order to determine their wood density with the perspective to decarbonisation. These parameters have been found out experimentally utilizing a drying technique in an oven including techniques of immersion in an Erlenmeyer full of water. The corresponding results indicated that the four species wood density is respectively 0.85, 0.80, 0.77 and 0.51. These preliminary results will be useful in our ongoing project on carbon dioxide absorption capacity of Congo rainforest tree species.

Fermented seeds of Pentaclethra macrophylla mitigate against memory deficit and restored altered enzymatic activity in the brain of streptozotocin-diabetic rats.

Memory deficit has been reported as one of the complications of diabetes. Fermented seeds of Pentaclethra Macrophylla (P. macrophylla) have been used in folklore for the management of metabolic diseases. The research aims to evaluate the impact of diets with the inclusion of the fermented seed of P. macrophylla on memory deficit in diabetic rats and its underlying mechanisms. Before the induction, the rats were subjected to training sessions. Thereafter, streptozotocin (50mg/kg body weight) was administered to the trained rats via intraperitoneal (i.p). 72hours after, the rats blood glucose level was checked, rats with blood glucose level greater than 250mg/dl were selected for the memory index evaluation study. The induced rats were randomly distributed into groups: Normal rats (group 1), untreated diabetic rat (Group 2), acarbose treated diabetic rats (group 3); diabetic rats placed on diet supplemented with fermented seed of P. macrophylla (10 & 20% inclusion) were allotted to group 4 & 5. Then, evaluation of memory retention capacity was performed on the day 14 of the experiment. Thereafter, experimental rats were sacrificed, tissue of interest (brain) was excised, homogenized and homogenates were used for biochemical analysis. The cholinergic, angiotensin-1-converting enzyme (ACE), arginase activity and biomarkers for oxidative stress were significantly altered in untreated diabetic rats when compared with non-diabetes rats. Also, the memory capacity of the diabetic rats was significantly reduced when compared with the non-diabetes rats. Meanwhile, diabetic rats placed on diet with fermented seeds of P. macrophylla (10 & 20% inclusion) exhibited significantly higher memory capacity, lower activity of cholinergic, ACE, arginase activity in relation to untreated diabetic rats while the antioxidant status of the brain was enhanced. Nevertheless, fermented seeds of P. macrophylla ameliorated memory deficit in STZ induced diabetes rats. This gave credence to P. macrophylla nutraceutical potential as claimed in folk medicine.

Preparation, characterization and application of H3PO4-activated carbon from Pentaclethra macrophylla pods for the removal of Cr(VI) in aqueous medium

Preparation, characterization and application of H3PO4-activated carbon from Pentaclethra macrophylla pods for the removal of Cr(VI) in aqueous medium

Abundance of aeroallergens in Rujin Sambo Sokoto (north-west), Nigeria

Exposure to aeroallergens has been associated with exacerbation of allergic respiratory diseases especially asthma. It is imperative to identify aeroallergens risk periods and triggers, for adaptation and immunotherapeutic approaches. Study on one-year abundance of aeroallergens was carried out in Rujin Sambo, Sokoto state, Nigeria, from August 2019 to July 2020. Aerosamples were collected using Tauber-like samplers modified to achieve a height of 1.52 m above ground level. Fungal spores were more quantitatively and qualitatively abundant than pollen. Aerosamples were infiltrated with dust in the months of November, March, April and May due to higher incidence of sandstorm, orchestrated by North-East trade wind, which could have refloated previously deposited aeroallergens. Incidence of sandstorm interposed the onset of dry and rainy seasons. The sand storm correlated negatively with humidity but positively with temperature and high influx of fern spores in November. Most fungal spores in the region were spores of Curvularia and Alternaria. Dominant pollen were dispersed from Poaceae, Amaranthaceae/Chenopodiaceae and Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth. In order to over-smart seasonal allergies and elicitation of asthma symptoms in Rujin Sambo, precautionary measures should be taken at the onset of rainy/dry seasons (March, April, May/ November) and August (active-rainy period) and October.

Isolation, Physicochemical and BET Analysis of Cellulose from Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth (Oil Bean) Pod Biomass Wastes

Biomass systems are based on a wide range of feedstock, like food and agricultural waste. The quest for bio-adsorbents that are environmentally benign is the rationale for this study. Thus, the research is aimed at the isolation, physicochemical, and BET analysis of cellulose obtained from Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth Pod (PMBP) biomass waste. The powdered PMBP was dewaxed with toluene and ethanol (2:1) and, thereafter, treated with aqueous sodium hypochlorite (7.5% at 70oC) and sodium hydroxide (17.5%w/v at 80oC) to obtain isolated cellulose. Proximate, ultimate, and chemical composition analysis reveals the presence of cellulose (42.7%), hemicelluloses (7.8%), lignin (38.5%), silicon (40.72%), aluminium (17.10%) and elements. The FTIR and Raman spectroscopic analysis revealed some of the functional groups associated with isolated cellulose and raw PMBP. The presence of hemicelluloses and lignin in the isolated cellulose implies that the isolation process did not remove all the impurities. The BET analysis reveals a better specific surface area, pore volume, and average pore diameter or size of the isolated cellulose, and could serve as a better adsorbent than the raw. As a result of the increased surface area and high percentage of isolated cellulose in PMBP, it can be used as a sustainable energy source as well as for the environmental remediation of heavy metals.

Effect of Heat Treatment on the Chemical Composition of Pentaclethra Macrophylla Pod

In this work, the effect of heat treatment on the chemical composition of powdered Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod was studied. The Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod was picked from the bush, cleaned manually, soaked and washed with distilled water to further remove the dirt particles. The washed Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod was sun-dried for about six hours. This was followed by ovum drying at a temperature of about 110oC for three hours to achieve a constant weight and allowed to cool. The dried Pentaclethra Macrophylla pods were crushed to powdered form using a locally fabricated crushing and grinding machines and later sieved. After sieving, the pod was divided into two samples with one carbonized and the other un-carbonized. The carbonized sample was packed in an earthen pot and covered with a lid. This was placed in a heat treatment furnace, heated to 950oC and held for three hours at the carbonization temperature under inert atmosphere. The furnace was turned off and 24hrs cooling was allowed for the furnace to cool to room temperature. The carbonized powdered Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod in the earthen pot was taken out of the furnace using a pair of laboratory tongues for further cooling. The chemical composition of the heat treated Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod was determined using XRF, FTIR and proximate analysis. The results showed that Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod has alumina Al2O3 and silica SiO2 as the dominant metallic oxides. The results also showed that the heat treated Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod had higher composition of fixed carbon and lesser moisture and volatile matter. Therefore, Pentaclethra Macrophylla pod can be used as a refractory material and as reinforcement in composite development.

ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CELLULOSE FROM Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth POD BIOMASS WASTES FOR POLYMER REINFORCEMENT COMPOSITE

The interest in natural reinforced polymer composite materials is rapidly growing both in industrial and basic research applications. This is based on its availability, renewability, low density, cheapness, biodegradability, and satisfactory mechanical properties. The research reports on the isolation and characterization of cellulose from Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth Pod (PMBP) biomass wastes for polymer reinforcement composites. Cellulose was successfully isolated from PMBP biomass via delignification and bleaching. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and deformation gravimetric analysis (DGA) were used to characterise the raw and isolated cellulose. The isolated cellulose has better thermal stability, crystallinity, and porosity than the raw cellulose. The removal of the matrix material (most hemicelluloses and almost all the lignin) led to an increase in the crystallinity and the maintenance of the thermal stability of the cellulose. The functional group elucidation showed that both raw and isolated contained cellulose, the morphology of the cellulose revealed some essential elements that are suitable for good polymer reinforcement composites. The obtained cellulose could serve as a reinforcing material in composite products or as a raw material for other applications.

Antibacterial Activities of Pentaclethra Macrophylla and Syzygium Samarangense against Opportunistic Bacteria Pathogens

In this study, Pentaclethra macrophylla and Syzygium samarangense leaves was tested for their antibacterial activities against selected opportunistic bacterial strains. The crude extracts of the plants were extracted using methanol and fractionated into hexane, ethyl acetate and aqueous fractions. The antibacterial activity of the leaves against B. subtilis (ATCC® 6633™), S. aureus (ATCC® 25923™), E. coli (ATCC® 25922™), P. aeruginosa (ATCC® 9027™) was performed using the agar well diffusion technique at 20mg/ml extracts fractions. All plants extracts extract exhibited some antibacterial activity against at least one bacterial strain. P. macrophylla exhibited the highest inhibition against E. coli (25mm) compared to B. subtilis, S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. Similar observation was noted for S. samarangense where the highest inhibition was against E. coli (22mm). In conclusion, P. macrophylla and S. samaragense exhibited antibacterial activities against the selected bacteria. The ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts of both plants had the highest antibacterial activities. This indicates that P. macrophylla and S. samrangense leaves could be a source of antibacterial agent in overcoming antibacterial drug resistance.

Growth and Nitrogen Accumulation Assessment of Banana (Musa acumuminata) After Exposure to Hydroquinone in a Charcoal-Ultisol Mix

The present study investigates plant growth and nitrogen accumulation assessment of young banana plant (Musa acuminata) after exposure to hydroquinone (a mutagen) in a charcoal-ultisol mix. Charcoal was obtained from the wood of Pentaclethra macrophylla aerobically, and was crushed into a smooth powdered form. This was mixed with an ultisol obtained from the University of Benin Botanic garden. Different levels of the soil-charcoal mix were prepared as follows; 100% charcoal, 75% charcoal-25% soil, 50% charcoal-50% soil, 25% charcoal- 75% soil, and 100% sand. The charcoal-ultisol mix was then amended with 5ppm hydroquinone one week before propagating young banana suckers. Results showed that sprouting began fifteen days after propagation. There were also different changes in plant height in the various soil treatments; the lowest was reported in the 75-25 charcoal ultisol mix (10.50cm), compared to 45.83cm in plants sown in 100% charcoals. Foliar yield was lowest in the 75-25 charcoal-ultisol mix (8.55 grams per plant), compared to 29.15 grams per plant in the 100% charcoal. The below ground morphological characteristics test plant revealed that there were significant differences between the growth parameters. Nitrate nitrogen, Ammonia Nitrogen and total nitrogen were significantly accumulated on the leaves of plant. However, higher nitrogen accumulation in the leaves was found in treatment with high charcoal percentage.

The effect of starter cultures on the pH, bacterial population and volatile flavour compounds in ‘ugba’ during fermentation

Traditionally, ugba of acceptable quality made from African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth) is characterized by its typical flavour and aroma. In this study, aroma profile and volatile flavour compounds released by spontaneously fermented ugba and five samples of ugba inoculated with starter cultures (A - Bacillus subtilis; B - B. safensis; C- Mixed culture of B. subtilis and B. safensis; D - Mixed culture of B. subtilis, B. safensis, B. clausii, B. licheniformis, and B. xylanilyticus; and E - B. cereus sensu lato) were monitored at 24 hour interval during 72 hours fermentation using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Commercially prepared ugba is the control. The total heterotrophic bacterial count (THBC) of the samples were determined using Standard Microbiological Methods; the pH involved the use of standard method. Increase in the THBC and pH of all the samples of fermenting ugba were within the range of 1.4 × 104 to 1.7 x 1012 CFU/ml and 5.89 to 8.24, respectively. A total of 31 compounds which comprise of 7 ketones, 7 alcohols, 5 organic acids, 4 aldehydes, 2 pyrazines, 1 ester, 1 furan, 1 sulfur and 3 other compounds were identified as aroma compounds in the fermenting samples of ugba. Flavour compounds categorized as ester, furan and sulfur compound were consistently detected in all the samples of ugba prepared in the laboratory. Ugba prepared using starter cultures including the spontaneously fermented sample compare favourably with commercially produced ugba with regards to volatile flavour compounds.

Influence of Trees Species on Nutrient Availability in the Forest Ecosystem

This study assessed the influence of tree species on the availability of nutrients in the forest ecosystem. Systematic sampling technique was employed in sampling the vegetation using a quadrats size of 10 m x 10 m spaced at regular intervals of 20 m. Seven (7) woody species were selected for this study. Soil samples were collected from the sampled plots closer to the base of the species using a soil auger at a depth (0-30 cm), these were stored in well labelled Ziploc bag and taken to the laboratory for physicochemical analyses using standard methods. The result revealed that the Organic Matter (3.13 ± 0.001%) and Total Nitrogen (0.08 ± 0.001%) were higher in soils of Musanga cecroploides while available Phosphorus (14.14 ± 1.15 mg/kg) and Calcium (14. 20 ± 0.01 cmol/kg) were higher in soils of Cola argentea. Sodium was higher in soils of Mansonia altissima (0.10 ± 0.01 cmol/kg) and Musanga cecropioides (0.10 ± 0.01 cmol/kg) while Potassium was higher in soil of Coelocaryon Preussii (0.16 ± 0.01 cmol/kg). Pentaclethra macrophylla had the least values for Magnesium (5.01 ± 1.15 mg/kg) while Coelocaryon preussii (0.07 ± 0.01 cmol/kg) and Synsepalum dulcificum (0.07 ± 0.02 cmol/kg) had the least values for sodium. The nutrient compositions across the soil of selected woody species in the forest were significantly different (p&lt;0.05). The study shows that woody species vary in their soil nutrient return and also exert great influence on soil nutrient composition in the forest ecosystem and also that trees are ecosystem engineers and are able to generate species-specific effect on soil properties that could potentially lead to feedback effect.

Dental macrowear, diet, and anterior tooth use in Colobus polykomos and Piliocolobus badius

Two similarly-sized colobine species living sympatrically in the Ivory Coast's Taï Forest that differ in both diet and oral processing behavior provide an opportunity to explore the strength of associations between feeding behavior and dental wear patterns. Here we test the hypothesis that vigorous processing of tough, hard Pentaclethra macrophylla pods by Colobus polykomos manifests in greater anterior tooth wear relative to that observed in Piliocolobus badius, which does not exploit this resource. We assessed levels of anterior tooth wear in a sample of 160 upper incisors and 131 lower incisors from 18 adult Colobus polykomos and 62 adult Piliocolobus badius naturally deceased individuals from Taï National Park. We operationalized tooth wear by dividing the area of exposed dentin by total occlusal crown area. To assess relative degrees of incisor wear, we regressed incisor wear against molar wear (sample = 105 upper molars, 135 lower molars) for the pooled Colobus polykomos and Piliocolobus badius wear data and compared the number of individuals from each species that fell above and below the pooled regression curve for each model using Chi-square tests of independence and odds ratios. Under our hypothesis, we would expect more Colobus polykomos points above the pooled regression curve than Piliocolobus badius, indicating higher incisor wear relative to molar wear in Colobus polykomos. Nine of sixteen interspecific comparisons demonstrated this predicted pattern; however, none of the Chi-square tests or odds ratios were significant, indicating no difference between Colobus polykomos and Piliocolobusbadius incisor wear relative to molar wear. The absence of significant differences in incisor wear relative to molar wear highlights the challenge of identifying idiosyncratic feeding behavior in fossil taxa and the necessity for continued exploration of the relationship between diet and macrowear.

Effect of Post Treatment with Brine and Steam on Phenotypic Resistant &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Salmonella&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Isolates from &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Pentaclethra macrophylla&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;

Food contaminated with antibiotic resistant bacteria pathogens is a major threat to public health. Apart from infecting man they serve as reservoirs of genes for antimicrobial resistance and they easily transfer the resistant genes to both related and unrelated bacterial species; hence the aim of the present study. The prevalence, antibiotic sensitivity pattern and plasmid profile of <i>Salmonella</i> spp isolates from ready-to-eat ugba (<i>Pentaclethra macrophylla</i>) samples vended in various markets in Enugu State, Nigeria was investigated. The samples were further examined to determine the effect of post treatment with brine and steam respectively. A total of 40ugba (<i>P. macrophylla</i>) samples were obtained from different food vendors in the selected markets in Enugu metropolis, Enugu state, Nigeria. Cultures were done on Salmonella-shigella agar and characterized by standard microbiological methods. Post treatment with brine involved rinsing 5g of <i>P. macrophyla</i> samples in three changes of brine solution while post treatment using steam was done by boiling5g of <i>P. macrophyla</i> samples for 10 mins to an internal temperature of 30°C, 60°C, 75°C and 90°C and subsequently cultured on Salmonella-Shigella agar by pour plate method. Antibiogram of the isolates were determined by using disc diffusion method and plasmid DNA was extracted using plasmid alkaline lysis method and separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. <i>Salmonella</i> spp. was recorded at high prevalence of 95%. The isolates showed varied resistance to different antibiotics; amoxicillin (50%), augmentin (100%), streptomycin (61%), septin (95%), gentamycin (45%) and chloramphenicol (68%). Multiple antibiotic resistant was observed in 26% of the isolates. Agarose gel electrophoresis showed that all the ten selected isolates had single plasmid bands of 20kb size. The results revealed relative similarities between the <i>Salmonella</i> isolates but possibility of five clones among the <i>Salmonella</i> isolates. At p<0.05 steam reduced the microbial load of isolates in <i>P. macrophyla</i> than in brine. The results from this study show that <i>Salmonella</i> spp. contamination of <i>P. macrophyla</i> was high in the study area and isolates were multidrug resistant; therefore food handlers should be properly educated and monitored to ensure compliance to proper food hygiene guidelines and <i>P. macrophyla</i> should be steamed prior to consumption to reduce the rate of infection.

Fertility Levels of Soils under Selected Tree Vegetations for Efficient Agro-Forestry in Imo State, Nigeria

In many parts of Nigeria, large areas of lands are dominated by tree crop vegetations for timber production and for fruits with land users not knowing the fertility status of soils in these vegetations. Continual evaluation of soil properties of these tree vegetations has become pertinent for agricultural sustainability. This study therefore was carried out to evaluate the fertility levels of soils under selected tree vegetations at National Horticultural Research Institute Okigwe, Imo State, Nigeria. Five tree vegetations that were over 20 years of establishment were selected namely: oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth), African breadfruit (Treculia africana), mango (Mangnifera indica), Ogbonu (Irvingia gabonensis) and orange (citrus spp). In each of these tree vegetations, four soil samples were collected at uniform depths (0 – 20, 20 – 40 and 40 – 60 cm) at different locations using soil auger. The samples were analyzed using standard laboratory procedures. Data collected were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance. Results obtained showed that despite the ages of these vegetations, the soils were acidic, low in macronutrient and basic cation concentrations when compared to FAO standard. The highest exchangeable bases and organic matter (1.78%) was recorded on bread fruit vegetation. Therefore, there is need to increase the fertility status of these soils in these tree crop vegetations by adopting measures that will boost organic matter content of the soil irrespective of the duration of the vegetation and this will help in agro forestry and alley cropping.