Penetration Of Islam Research Articles

The solution by the authorities of the Russian Empire of the “Muslim question” among the Kazakhs

The article deals with the evolution of the imperial Russian government and regional policy on the so-called Muslim issue among the Kazakhs. An attempt was made to periodize from the rejection of Kazakh Islam, to its use as a tool for incorporating Kazakhs into imperial structures with the help of, first of all, Tatar mullahs and specially created bodies, primarily the muftiate, to the emergence of two parallel lines in the policy of the Orenburg and West Siberian authorities to wary attitude on the part of the government, which noticed in Kazakh Islam elements of politicization and the threat of the development of separatist tendencies. At the same time, issues of education using elements of Islamic education, expanding the penetration of Islam into the Kazakh environment by changing the number of cultists, and attempts by the authorities to use Islamic institutions as official positions in the grassroots colonial administration are considered. The issues of the evolution of the perception of Kazakh and Central Asian Islam by the administration, travelers, researchers are also considered; as well as the perception of the ongoing reforms by the Kazakhs. The evolution of the political process is considered in connection with other administrative reforms of Russia in the Kazakh steppe and among the Muslims of the empire, the place and role of this issue in colonial policy at various stages are determined. It also analyzes the correction of the position of the Russian authorities, depending on the change in the foreign policy situation and changes in the boundaries of possessions. The source complex was made up of published and archival documents and materials from the repositories of Russia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, a number of which are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time.

Eksistensi dan Peran Dakwah Male Ta Ilayabe di Gorontalo

Male Ta Ilayabe’s character which respected by the local community as ulama. How is the process, strategy, role and legacy of Male Ta Ilayabe's da'wah in Gorontalo. This research is qualitative with descriptive method using observation and interview data collection techniques. The data obtained then it studied, analyzed, interpreted to produce conclusions. The results of this study were his strategy by taking advantage of his position as an assistant of king as well as da’wah to the people of Gorontalo. His populist and simple attitude makes it easy in the process of da’wah. His role of da'wah as a messenger of taxes, the existence of religious-political relations became a factor in the penetration of Islam in the archipelago. His da'wah activities have an impact on changing the social community with the remains of tomb and Hunto mosque which have become religious and cultural tourism destinations in Gorontalo City.

Ancient Turkic ritual fences on the burial ground Ulken Kakpak

The article is devoted to the introduction into scientific circulation of information about the ritual monument of the ancient Turkic time, studied at the Ulken Kakpak burial ground, located in the north-eastern part of Zhetysu. In the course of the study, complex archaeological exploration and excavation works were carried out, in connection with the structural features of the monument, a widely used comparative typological method was used, and a technical and technological analysis of the fragments of ceramic dishes found was carried out. The analysis of ceramic tableware was carried out on the basis of binocular microscopy methods and was classified according to three main stages of the manufacture of ceramic tableware. The studied ritual fences represent a whole complex with burials randomly located in one burial ground. Despite the fact that only fragments of ceramic ware were found during the study of ritual fences, based on the design features of the fences and comparing them with those previously studied in neighboring regions, we can say that the monument dates back to the early Middle Ages. Of particular interest is the special treatment of the upper part of the stele, installed on the outside of the northern wall of fence no. 1. The ritual fence can be built by followers of ancient Turkic beliefs during the penetration of Islam into this region. During the archaeological excavations at the Ulken Kakpak burial ground, located in Zhetysu, which was the center of the Turkic khaganates, many sources were obtained for the study of early medieval ritual monuments. Among other things, materials were collected concerning the ritual beliefs and worldview of the ancient Turkic time. The monument is dated by the authors of the VIII–IX centuries.

Title-Holding Among Egba Muslims of Ogun State, Nigeria: X-Raying the Nexus Between Islam and Yoruba Culture

Title-holding was a cultural practice of Yoruba before the penetration of Islam in Egba land, an area predominantly inhabited by the Yoruba speaking people of Ogun State, Nigeria. The acceptance of Islam by the Egba reformed, to a large extent, the socio-religious and cultural lives of the people. The Yoruba cultural systems of marriage, naming and burial rites were greatly influenced and reformed by Islam. However, a good number of the Egba, who profess Islam, still retain some of their cultural beliefs and traditions. Consequently, there is a nexus of Yoruba culture and Islamic practices and rites such as marriage, naming and funerals. Such connection can also be noticed in title-holding among the people. This paper, therefore, critically appraises the fusion of the Yoruba cultural elements to the Islamic practice of the title-holding among Egba Muslims. The paper adopts the historical approach to establish the institutionalization of title-holding in Islam. It then x-rays the institution of title-holding among the people. The study also examines the similarities between the Muslim titles and the Yoruba traditional titles patterned along the traditional set up in Egba Muslim Community. Realizing the fact that title-holding has become a firmly rooted institution among the Egba Muslims, the paper posits that the practice should be restructured for better administration of the people and development of Islam in Egbaland in particular and Yorubaland in general.

About the Time of the Adoption of Islam by the Population of the Southern Ural

The object of the study is the adoption of Islam by the population of the Southern Ural. The subject of the study is the question of the time of the adoption of Islam in the territory of modern Bashkortostan – the largest region of the Southern Urals. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the historiography of the issue, the spread of Islam among Bashkirs according to narrative sources – information from foreign travelers and Bashkir legends, archaeological sites with a Muslim funeral rite. In historiography, the question of the time of the adoption of Islam by Bashkirs has been repeatedly revised in the direction of antiquity. Narrative sources link the Islamization of Bashkirs with the activities of missionaries from Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In archeology, the spread of Islam on the territory of Bashkortostan is associated with the Chiyalik culture of the XII-XIV centuries. Special attention is paid to the funerary monuments of the nomadic population of steppe origin, dated XIII-XV centuries. Having settled in the land of Bashkirs, the nomads converted to Islam. A special contribution of the author to the study of the topic is a comparative analysis of the "pagan" and Muslim burials of the XIII-XV centuries, identified within the republic. A total of 84 burials were recorded. Of these, 31 burials were performed according to the "pagan" rite, dated XIII-XIV centuries., 53 burials were performed according to the Muslim rite, dated XIV-XV centuries. It is concluded that the archaeological data correspond to written sources reporting the adoption of Islam in Bashkiria in the XIV century. The novelty of the study lies in clarifying the dating of the three main stages of Islamization of the region's population. The penetration of Islam into the Bashkir environment occurs in the pre–Mongol period, the spread of Islam – in the Golden Horde period, the establishment of Islam - after the XV century. The process of Islamization ends with the disappearance of the burial burial rite and the transition to the modern Muslim funeral rite. Voluntary entry into Russia guaranteed Bashkirs freedom of religion.

ANCIENT RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA

The article notes that Buddhism and Islam, which are currently the main world religions in the region of Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, are among the main religions, the spread of these religions also had its own characteristics, like Hinduism, in contrast to the processes that took place in other countries, although the Islamization of the region has continued for decades, even centuries, the region has not seen Arab military action. With the spread of Islam in the region of Southeast Asia, it developed under the influence of the religions that existed there, and over time began the process of syncretization with the customs of other surrounding religions. It is noteworthy that at the time of the penetration of Islam, the population accepted it not as a foreign religion, but as a pre-existing belief.

Ислам в Томском Приобье от XIII к XVIII веку – от гипотез к реальности

Objective: The article deals with the question of the time of the spread of Islam in the Tomsk region of the Ob basin. It not only analyzes the early date of the penetration of Islam (the thirteenth century), but also the events related to the integration of Western Siberia into the Russian state. Moscow’s policies toward the aboriginal population was flexible and considered the complexity of the ethnic picture of the annexed lands. After a relatively short time, the population of the region was split into two worlds – Christian (Orthodox) and Islamic. Research materials: The archaeological complexes of this period demonstrate this process and, considering the scarcity of the written sources, allow us to clarify the time and place of the population’s initiation into new religions. However, it is necessary to take into account all the nuances, and all the materials available for analysis, in order not to create a false idea of historical processes, and to succumb to the desire to push the spread of Islam in this region to a more distant past. Determination of the confessional affiliation of the deceased cannot be limited to two features, and it is necessary to consider both the global canons of Islam and its Siberian regional peculiarities. My report is based on the materials of the excavations of the Tojanov Gorodok burial ground of the famous national archaeologist M.P. Gryaznov in 1924. Results and novelty of the research: Based on the analysis of the available materials the following conclusion is made: this site cannot be considered “one of the earliest Islamic sites in the Lower Tom basin”. It is a burial site of the pre-Muslim period. The circumstances related to the spread of Islam are as follows: although it is possible that Islam penetrated the region as early as the thirteenth century, the formation of Muslim communities occurred in the seventeenth century, after Western Siberia became part of the Russian state.

ARCHITECTURE OF MUSLIM MOSQUES IN UKRAINE

The article deals with the historical prerequisites for the penetration of Islam into the territory of Ukraine and the formation of Islamic architecture.
 It was revealed that the geographical position of Ukraine contributed to the emergence of Muslims in Ukrainian lands, especially in the south, on the border of two great civilizations – Christian and Muslim. At the same time, Islam in Ukraine played a significant ethno-forming role in the life of the Turkic peoples.
 Evidence of the permanent presence of Muslims in Kievan Rus dates back to the 11th century, when the Pecheneg Muslim cavalry was in the service of the Kievan prince. The second period is defined as a military-colonization period, which refers to the settlement in a permanent place of the peoples who professed Islam, as well as the colonial policy of the Ottoman Empire in the Northern Black Sea region and Transnistria. The Crimean peninsula became the main area for the spread of Islam in the lands that became part of independent Ukraine, where a unique Muslim civilization was born and strengthened.
 With the development of migration processes, the need arose for the construction of Muslim mosques on the territory of Ukraine. And if in the XVI-XVII century. mosques were built of wood, then starting from the 19th century. - stone and brick. The first mosque in Ukraine appeared in the XVI-XVII centuries. in the city of Ostrog in Volhynia in the Tatar suburb, built by Prince K. Ostrozhsky, which has not survived. From the beginning of the nineteenth century Mosques were built in the cities of Ukraine (Kyiv, Kharkiv), and the modern history of Islam and Muslims of Ukraine begins with the acquisition of Independence. So, in 1998-2000 the prayer-Muslim complex was built in Kyiv and the Arab cultural center in Odessa (2000). In addition, Muslim mosques have been built and are being designed in Donetsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhye, Mykolaiv, Kherson regions, as well as in the cities of Kyiv, Odessa, Donetsk, etc.
 In order to perceive a renewed direction in the architecture of public buildings, lost in Soviet times - sacred architecture, including Muslim architecture, Muslim architecture is being formed. It is determined that the modern architecture of mosques is created on the basis of the synthesis of traditionalism and the modern creative nature of the architectural method of designing a three-dimensional image of an Islamic shrine.

The Traditional Culture of Dogon (Mali) in the Context of Islamic Civilization.

The article examines the phenomenon of the penetration of elements of pre-Islamic decor into the architecture of mosques in the Dogon Country (Mali). In the case of Dogon architecture, one can observe a very peculiar version of the interaction of traditional culture with Islam. In itself, the use of forms and types of architectural structures traditional for the given territory is well known - it is enough to recall the Ottoman mosques. With the Dogon, the situation is different: the architecture of mosques reproduces not just the decor of a building directly related to traditional religion, but precisely those details of it that are associated with the worship of "idols", or fetishes. Similar incidents were recorded in other areas of Dogon modern traditional culture. A typical example is the prophet Amabir (Amabirɛ, “Creation of the Lord”, abbreviated as Abirɛ) Goro (Goro), who owns the prophecy that some day or other the Dogon will return to the Mande Country. The Dogon consider Amabire, and not Muhammad, the "last prophet" and connect the legend about him with the history of Islam in Mali. These cases indicate the penetration of pagan elements into Muslim architecture, as well as the penetration of Islam into pagan folklore and a clear desire to link them with each other. So this is evidence of the synthesis of Islam and traditional culture: pagan elements of Dogon heritage are no longer recognized as such, and Islamic elements are not identified by the Dogon only with religion.

On the Question of the Trends in the Development of Islam in South Africa

The article discusses the ways of penetration of Islam into South Africa and the forces that played a significant role in its spread in this territory. The development of reformist tendencies in South African Islam during the second half of the 20th century is analyzed. It is noted that although in South Africa there were supporters of progressive trends in the reform of Islam, their number was minimal. There were significantly more adherents of the conservative trend in Islam. The special role of the Deobandi school and the Tablighi Jamaat movement among the supporters of the conservative direction is noted. A review of Muslim organizations that were actively created during the 20th century is given. These organizations were aimed at strengthening Islam in South African society and increasing the number of believers. The strengthening of the role of tarikats — Muslim spiritual orders, in the religious life of South African Muslims from the end of the 20th century is noted. The role of Islamic education, which has been increasing its importance in South Africa in recent decades, is emphasized.

Proiskhozhdenie islama na Severnom Kavkaze

The penetration of Islam into Dagestan lasted for almost a whole millennium. Initially, Islam became entrenched in the Derbent Emirate, from where it spread to the territory of southern and southeastern Dagestan. It is important to emphasize that despite the different times of the adoption of Islam among the various groups of Vainakhs, this process proceeded very slowly, stretching over several centuries.

Integrasi Hukum Islam Di Kerajaan Demak Abad XVI M

: The transfer of government from Majapahit to Demak at the end of the 15th century, as well as a transition from the Hindu era to the Islamic era, also gave birth to social, political, cultural, and legal transformations. The pattern of the penetration of Islam into peaceful Javanese culture, or penetration pacifique, has shown integration in all fields. Integration creates a stable and equilibrium condition. The question that then arises is how Demak produces laws that are able to create such stable conditions. It is important to do this on the fiber Suryangalam legal text of the Demak era. The purpose of this study is to identify the Serat Suryo Alam manuscript, explore Islamic law legislation in the text, and explain how the Islamic kingdom of Demak carried out social engineering to realize a just and peaceful society. Then to answer the problem, philological and historical methods are used, while the analysis uses content analysis with Talcott Parson's integration theory. This study concludes that: 1) the Suryo Alam manuscript is a legal text that can be found in the digitization of British Library manuscripts, 2) this manuscript contains legal, material, and judicial sources at the same time, and 3) social engineering can be measured by the stages of adaptation of Hindu and Islamic law, with the Trirasa Goal of efforts, legal integration, and efforts to maintain the law in people's social lives or latency. This stage gave birth to an equilibrium society of tata titi tentrem gemahripah loh jinawi kartaraharja.

المعتقدات السودانية في الشعر السوداني

In any community, beliefs are formed according to ideological, historical, political, intellectual, social and environmental changes. Hence, the research aims at unmasking the role of these changes in forming beliefs in the Sudan and, thereof, showing the way they are reflected in Sudanese poetry. Accordingly, the problem of the research consists inherently in the following question: to what extent could the Sudanese poets highlight Suda- nese beliefs in their own poetry? In this context, a group of Sudanese poets have highlighted the images of those Sudanese beliefs which are distinguished from the beliefs of other countries. In this regard, the Sudanese poets are obviously strongly affected by the call of the late Sudanese critic, Hamza al-Malik Ṭambal (in early twentieth century), in which he called on the Sudanese poets to emancipate themselves from imitating the classic mode of old and contemporary Arab poetry. To Ṭambal, this style of the classic Arab verse has negatively impacted the Sudanese poem, the result of which is the lack of the distinctive character of the Sudanese poetry. Of the most important outcomes concluded by the researcher is that the Sudanese poets, in their portrayal of the Sudanese beliefs in their poetries, have been flagrantly been affected by the call of the Sudanese critic, Ṭambal. Therefore, the Sufi idiosyncrasy has predominantly prevailed over these images as a result of the overriding Sufi current over the Sudanese community. Likewise, before penetration of Islam into the Sudan, the indigenous Sudanese beliefs had had a clear role in forming those images, notwithstanding the incompatibility of the images to the Islamic faith. Moreover, the Sudanese social variation had its own obvious role in forming the images of those beliefs, particularly predilection for rapture and music rhythm. Also, of the ensuing outcomes, those icons came to be as closely resembling folkloric pictures

О ВОЕННО-ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЙ ИСТОРИИ ВАЙНАХСКИХ НАРОДОВ В ДРЕВНЕЕ ВРЕМЯ И СРЕДНЕВЕКОВЬЕ

This paper is dedicated to the reconstruction of ethnic and political history of the Nakhs in the Ancient Times, Middle Ages and Early Modern Times. Several Nakh tribes were known mainly to Georgians and Armenians. Nakhs were the main population of Georgia until the 4th century BC. The formation of the Iberian kingdom (Kartli) was closely connected with the interaction of the Kartvelian peoples with the nakhs of the South Caucasus, which appeared in Georgian sources under the name Durdzuks. The Nakhs were confronted with Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans n the North Caucasus. Therefore, Nakhs were better known in the South Caucasus. The most notable of the Durdzuk cluster was the tribe of the Tsanars. During the VIII-IX centuries Tsanars actively resisted the Arabs. The Tsanar chorebishop was one of the titles of the king of Kakheti and they actively participated in the Kakheti wars with the Abkhaz, Kartli, and Tao-Klardzhet kings. The final Kartvelization of the tsanars dates back to the XI century. Tushins, Pshavs, Khevsurs were kartvelized in the end of the XII century. Only the Batsbians retained the Nakh identity. Ethnonym Dzurzuk from the XIII century ceased to denote the Nakh population of the South Caucasus, which began to be designated by Kistins and Batsbians. Durdzuks from the XIII century these are the nakhs of the North Caucasus. The North Caucasian nakhs were ruled by the Alan kings in the XI-XIII centuries. Mongol invasion in XIII century weakened the power of the Alans over the North Caucasus. The territory of Chechnya united the Nakh state of Simsim in the middle of the XIV century, which at the end of the XIV century attacked by the Chagatays of Timur. Establish Georgian power over the highlanders in the middle of the fourteenth century. And in the 30s. XVII century Georgian kings Giorgi V and Teymuraz tried. Their real power was only over Georgian highlanders (Pshavs, Khevsurs, Tushins) and Batsbians. Kabardinians made a big campaign against the Nakhs in the middle of the XVI century. Temruk Idarov during the campaign of 1563 used the help of Nogays and Russians. Kabardinians entered the Sunzha region and drove the Ingush into the mountains. In the mountains was the possession of the Ingush Lars. The first of the Chechens to contact the Russians were the rulers of Aukh (Okoks of Russian sources). Some part of the Okoks in the XVII century evicted from Aukh on a plane to the area of Terek and Sunzha. The population of the Chechen possession obeyed the princes Turlovs from Gumbet. The people of Nokhch-Mokkh often opposed the Russians in the XVII century. There are some reasons to believe that they depended on the Kumyk rulers of the Andirean beilik. Avars and Kumyks also contributed to the penetration of Islam to the Chechens. Shibutians (Shatoys) and Chantiyans actively contacted Russians. Russian influence until the middle of the XVIII century it was rather nominal and was manifested in the presence of Cossacks and Streltsy on the Terek and Sunzha and in the exchange of embassies with Georgia. Not a single regional state such as the Safavid state or the Crimean Khanate has succeeded in establishing its power in the Central Caucasus. Chechens used vassality from the Russians as a counterweight to the influence of the Crimean Khanate and the Afshar state in the first half of the XVIII century, but this did not interfere with their situational alliances with the Kumyks and Crimean Tatars against the Russians. Chechens actively supported Islamic fanatics. Strengthening Russian power in the North Caucasus in the second half of the XVIII century led to the fact that the Ingush took Russian citizenship. There have been social changes in Chechnya. Societies drove out their princes. In this situation, the Chechens and other peoples of the Caucasus made an attempt to unite Sheikh Mansur. An attempt to unite Chechnya was also undertaken in the XIX century by Beibulat Taimiev. Key words: Vainakhs, Durdzuki, Chechens, Ingushes, Chechen domain, Georgia, Minor Kabarda, free societies

Nilai Historis-Sosiologis Bendera Macan Ali dan Dunia Mistik Masyarakat Cirebon (Memaknai Ulang Konsep Islam Kejawen)

Abstract Syncretism is a central issue for understanding the concept of Kejawen Islam. The intended syncretism is syncretism that appears independently as part of discursive differences originating from the same religion and culture. Syncretism in Kejawen Islam is a form of penetration of Islam as the dominant culture into the Kejawen culture which combines Hindu-Buddhist concepts which tend toward mystics. This can be seen in the Macan Ali flag which uses the tiger as a symbol of the greatness of the Cirebon Sultanate. This believe is living because tiger is a sacred mystical animal which existed before Islam entered Java, and still believed to this day. Keywords : Syncretism, Mysticism, Islam Kejawen, Macan Ali, Cirebon

Muslim culture of the Golden Horde according to medieval Arab sources

Islam played an important role in the formation and development of the Golden Horde statehood. Medieval Arabic annals and notes of travelers who visited the Golden Horde on their own have given a lot of information about the penetration of Islam and the establishment of its positions in the Golden Horde society. Among them, a special place is occupied by the writings of the Egyptian authors of the Mamluk era. Along with the established close diplomatic and trade relations between the Volga and the Nile, the dialogue of cultures was also widespread at that time. The spiritual traditions of the Golden Horde evolved at the crossroads of different cultures and peoples, and this happened in Mamluk Egypt. The important point was the fact that by the XIV century, the Golden Horde and the Mamluk Egypt had a strong position in the international arena. The proposed article reveals various facts related to the penetration of Muslim culture into the social and political life of the Golden Horde according to materials from medieval Arabic sources.

ИСЛАМ В ЖИЗНИ ОБСКИХ УГРОВ КАК ФАКТОР ИХ КУЛЬТУРНО-ИСТОРИЧЕСКОЙ ПСИХОЛОГИИ: ИСТОЧНИКИ И МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ

The article analyses sources on the history of Islam in the culture of the Northern indigenous peoples, such as the Ob Ugrians (the Khanty and the Mansi): the Siberian chronicles, works of decorative and applied art, ethnographic materials. The paper provides methodological justification of the “impoverished environment” conception, which explains the mechanism of cultural borrowings under the North conditions. The authors conclude that the intensive penetration of Islam into the Ob Ugrian culture resulted in assimilation of some Khanty and Mansi tribes by the Siberian Tatars, and the Zabolotnie Tatars remained the only representatives of the Islamized (Turkicized) Khanty.

Islamic Lexic And Terms In Bosnian Language

Islamic lexic in the Corps of Oriental vocabulary is not negligible. This breakthrough into the Bosnian language area is related to the penetration of Islam and his acceptance by the local population. The system of educational institutions that are formed within Islam, has implemented all aspects of the study of Islamic sciences, and opened the way processes in language interferences. Islam has given their faithful an appropriate characteristic that is reflected in various forms of cultural, public and private life. Subsequent to the conversion of the local population to Islam were extralinguistic factors that went in favor of linguistic interference, opening the way to intensive borrowing vocabulary from the religious sphere, but also in the lexic that follows the customs and daily life, the lexic of personal names.

PENETRASI ISLAM DALAM PENDIDIKAN KEAGAMAAN MASYARAKAT MELAYU DI ROKAN HULU

This paper is part of the results of research, one of the objectives is to know the penetration of Islam on religious social, especially the field of education that occurred in the community Rokan Hulu. Due to this study of social science research, the method used is in accordance with the social science method guided by theoretical framework by using qualitative approach done in four stages of work namely (1) heuristics, (2) criticism, (3) interpretation, and ( 4) historiography. The research is descriptive form of research that gives a description or describes a complex reality so that the explanation and analysis and interpretations are met. The research location is Rokan Hulu Regency because predicted Riau Islamization comes from Barus adjacent to Rokan Hulu. The results prove that Barus became an important port after Melaka in the world of commerce. In addition to trade, they are traders also broadcast the religion of Islam and make emotional connection with the local community and marriage so that many tombs of Middle Eastern communities in Barus that can be witnessed today and has been studied also by scientists from various countries. The spread of Islam in Barus spread to the surrounding area like South Tapanuli known as “Serambi Mekah” of North Sumatra. By looking at the position of Rokan Hulu adjacent to South Tapanuli, it can be predicted that will be affected by the Islamization so that it will affect the religious social community of Rokan Hulu including education. The nickname of “Negeri Seribu Suluk” to Rokan Hulu is an indication that Rokan Hulu is a temple of Barus Islamization so that it affects the religious education that grows and develops in Rokan Hulu Malay society such as the number of houses of worship and “surau-surau suluk” which until now still become the icon of the area. The birth of the Sufis who developed the Naqsyabandiyah congregation in Rokan Hulu was an implementation of the religious life of the Malay Rokan Hulu people, in which they chose a special way of nicknaming to draw closer to Allah SWT.

The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony (second edition) by Molefi Kete Asante, and: Healthcare Policy in Africa: Institutions and Politics from Colonialism to the Present by Jean-Germain Gros, and: The Roots of Ethnic Conflict in Africa: From Grievance to Violence by Wanjala S. Nasong'o

Reviewed by: The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony (second edition) by Molefi Kete Asante, and: Healthcare Policy in Africa: Institutions and Politics from Colonialism to the Present by Jean-Germain Gros, and: The Roots of Ethnic Conflict in Africa: From Grievance to Violence by Wanjala S. Nasong'o Frank Matanga Asante, Molefi Kete. The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony (second edition). New York: Routledge, 2014. Gros, Jean-Germain. Healthcare Policy in Africa: Institutions and Politics from Colonialism to the Present. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishersx, 2015. Nasong'o, Wanjala S. The Roots of Ethnic Conflict in Africa: From Grievance to Violence. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015. The common thread in the three books under review is an examination of contemporary themes in the social, economic, and political history of Africa. The issues of ethnic violence, healthcare policies, and political and economic systems are critically examined from an Afrocentric perspective, rather than a Eurocentric perspective. The three authors, from Africa, Latin America, and the United States, respectively, all teach at American universities and, collectively, have produced a significant amount of scholarship. Consequently, the three books under review succeed in shedding new light on Africa's problems and challenges, while proposing exciting and innovative solutions to such [End Page 77] issues. These books are a must-read for Africa's theorists, practitioners, and policy makers as well as university students who seek to comprehend and interpret contemporary African issues. Molefi Kete Asante is a professor at Temple University who is well known for his works based on Afrocentricity, a cultural ideology that focuses on the history of black Africans and that rejects Eurocentric and Orientalist attitudes about African people. Asante, who was born Arthur Lee Smith in Georgia, legally changed his name because he believed that his birth name was a slave name. The second edition of The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony is divided into seven parts. Part 1, "The Time of Awakening," is used by Asante to demonstrate the extent to which Africa is the home of both humanity and civilization. He opines that "one could not write a complete history of humanity without delving into the prehistory of Africa" (p. 9). Part 2, "The Age of Literacy," traces the roots of issues and events such as modern science and technology, agriculture, architecture, philosophy, mathematics, and writing skills to Africa. In Part 3, "Moment of Realization," and Part 4, "The Age of Construction," Asante critically traces the origins of the great rivers in Africa and the respective river kingdoms and empires. Part 5, "The Time of Chaos," examines the two principal invasions of African civilizations: European Christian and Arab Islamic penetration carried out by missionaries, merchants, and mercenaries. Part 6, "The Age of Reconstruction," explores the age of resistance against colonialism. Asante examines the fathers of African decolonization [End Page 78] and freedom such as Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, and Haile Selassie. According to the author, these decolonization efforts were an integral component of the Pan African Movement. In Part 7, "The Time for Consolidation," Asante focuses on attempts to re-assert Africa's economic, socio-cultural, and political sovereignty through resistance measures to neo-colonialism as perpetrated by external forces. In addition to external forces, Asante urges the reader to focus on internal forces that have also accounted for the current socio-economic and political decay and abuse on the continent resulting in military coups, civil wars, and genocide. This is what Asante calls Africa creating its own chaos. The History of Africa: The Quest for Internal Harmony is a refreshing look at the history of Africa. As aptly put by Asante, "African historiography has typically consisted of writing Africa for Europe instead of writing Africa for itself, as itself, from its own perspectives" (p. xiii). This book redresses the dilemma by letting the perspectives of Africans themselves take center stage. By balancing blame for Africa's problems between external and internal forces, Asante presents a more nuanced approach to studying Africa. He does not simply blame colonial forces for Africa's predicament the way many African theorists and practitioners do, but holds internal forces culpable for the same. All...