Pencil Tests Research Articles

Test Construction Principles Violated in Selected Summative Tests in English

Teachers give many forms of assessment to measure their students’ performance and achievement. Paper and pencil test might be considered as an old and traditional form of assessment, but it is still effective until now. However, it has been observed that many test papers contain erroneous test papers. Thus, this descriptive study aimed to determine the test construction principles violated in sixteen summative tests in English gathered from high school teachers in a public secondary school in San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. Frequency counts and percentages were used to treat the data gathered. Interpretation and analysis of data were guided by the test construction principles used in the study of Lin (2002). Results of the study show that most of the vocabulary items violated the principle on making all the options with the same word class. On the other hand, the majority of the grammar test items used mixed options. When it comes to the reading comprehension section, most of the items can be answered from general knowledge. These test construction violations, in many ways, could hamper effective and successful assessments.

Comparability of computer based and paper & pencil test on students’ performance in educational assessment course at the Federal University Gusau, Nigeria

Introduction: Computer-Based Test (CBT) is being adopted for assessment by many institutions in Nigeria due to increase in students’ population, expansion of work demands from academic staff, and advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Purpose: This study investigated the comparability of Computer Based Test (CBT) and Paper-Pencil Test (PPT) on students’ scores in Educational assessment course at Federal University Gusau, Zamfara State. Methodology: The study adopted the repeated measures design. The population for this study comprised of all undergraduate students of Federal University Gusau. The target population comprised of all the 450 registered 300 level undergraduate students from Faculty of Education, Federal University Gusau during 2021/2022 academic session. All the students were purposively selected for the study. Two instruments were used for data collection: The Multiple Choice Test in Test and Measurement (MCTTM) used for PPT and CBT had acceptable content validity coefficient of correlation of 0.69 percent and split-half reliability coefficient of 0.81, while the ICT Competence Questionnaire developed for obtaining information on students’ competence in and attitude to ICT had test re-test reliability coefficient of 0.78 and 0.81 respectively. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The hypotheses formulated for the study were tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Results: The findings of the study revealed that Federal University Gusau undergraduate students have little competence in ICT. It also revealed significant difference in students’ scores in CBT and PPT in an educational assessment course. The difference is in favour of PPT with mean score of 48.72. The study also revealed no significant effect of gender on students’ scores on the two modes of testing. In addition, significant relationships also exist among students’ competence in, attitude to ICT and their performance in CBT. Recommendation: The study therefore recommended that educators should encourage the use of the adequate ICT facilities for teaching and learning. This will not only motivated the learners in learning but also prepare them for CBT.

254 Markers of Neurodegeneration Associate with Worse Performance of Complex Daily Tasks

OBJECTIVES/GOALS: In preclinical Alzheimer disease (AD), biomarkers such as amyloid protein, decreased hippocampal volume, and weaker network connections are apparent in the brain, but memory symptoms assessed by paper and pencil tests have not yet appeared. Performance tests of complex daily tasks may be more sensitive and detect early functional impairment. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: This is a cross-sectional analysis of an ongoing cohort study. Cognitively normal (CN) older adults completed 3 standardized complex daily tasks from the Performance Assessment of Self-Care Skills (PASS) in their home. Biomarkers of AD were assessed within 2-3 years of an individuals completion of the PASS and include: amyloid accumulation, hippocampal volume, and resting-state functional connectivity (rs-fc) signature. Associations between performance on PASS tasks and the biomarkers of AD were quantified by Pearson point-biserial correlations, as biomarker data was normally distributed and PASS scores fell between two categories (acceptable or optimal quality of performance). Correlations with a 95% confidence interval (CI) that did not include 0 were considered significant. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: 161 CN participants (mean age 74.3 years, 55% female) were included. Mean score on the 3 PASS tasks ranged from 2.67 [standard deviation (SD): .47] to 2.90 (SD: .16) out of 3. Mean amyloid PET on Centiloid scale was 23.8 (SD: 34.8); mean partial volume corrected hippocampal volume was 7448.5 (SD: 909.8); mean rs-fc signature was .805 (SD: .164). After controlling for age and gender, worse performance of complex daily activities was associated with smaller hippocampal volumes (Pearsons r: 0.302, p=.02, 95% CI: .179 to .416) and weaker rs-fc network connections (Pearsons r: 0.276, p=.03, 95% CI: .078 to .453), but not amyloid accumulation. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE: This study suggests that worse performance of complex daily tasks may be associated with markers of neurodegeneration. These findings could lead to a better understanding of functional changes that may occur during the preclinical stage of AD.

UNDERGRADUATES’ VIEWS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE USE OF COMPUTER-BASED TESTS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, NIGERIA

This study examined the perception and attitude of undergraduate students towards the use of the computer-based test (CBT) for examination at the University of Lagos. The researcher formulated and tested four research hypotheses to direct the study's findings. The Descriptive Survey Research Method was used to sample two hundred (200) undergraduate students at the University of Lagos. The sample comprised 88 male and 112 female 300 level students randomly selected from four different faculties (Education, Science, Social Sciences and Arts). Data was collected using a structured questionnaire with a reliability coefficient of 0.76 when tested on the pilot study. Simple percentage and frequency counts were used to analyse the demographic data. The independent t-test statistical tool tested the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance hypotheses. Findings from the study showed that 1) there is no significant gender difference in the views and attitudes of undergraduates towards the use of CBT for examination in the University of Lagos, 2) there is a perceived significant impact of CBT on the performance of undergraduate students in the University of Lagos, 3) there are significant problems associated with the use of CBT for examination in the University of Lagos. According to the above findings, the study recommends that the university's examination board should consistently adopt the CBT techniques in examination and increase the degree of transparency in the presentation of exam results, as it extends the examination duration for calculation-based courses. Additionally, the test developer should formulate more CBTs than the traditional paper and pencil tests.

Safety Compliance in a Sample of Italian Mechanical Companies: The Role of Knowledge and Safety Climate.

The accident rate in the Italian mechanical sector is still too high, and evidence-based interventions to improve safety performance are essential. To better address this, our study contributes to the understanding of how to promote safety compliance through safe behaviours by using a sample of Italian mechanical workers (n = 109). Before and after scheduled safety training, intervention data on organizational factors, as well as on individual factors affecting safety-related behaviours, were collected. Particularly, data were collected using multiple sources, including self-perception questionnaires (to measure the safety climate among the management and colleagues and the safety attitude), paper and pencil tests (to measure safety knowledge), and observations by personnel with experience in observation tasks (to measure safety behaviours objectively). A model class of competing general linear models was built to determine which of the models was best suited for predicting safety-related behaviours. The results showed that both knowledge and the management’s safety climate effectively promoted safety compliance. Crucial implications for the effectiveness of active teaching methods, along with the need for continuous training and the prominent role of the management team members in giving, through their actions, further relevance to the need to respect rules and procedures, were revealed. Finally, practical implications for researchers, corporate decision makers, government agencies, and international bodies are discussed.

BGU‐MF: Ben‐Gurion University Math Fluency test

AbstractMath fluency (MF) is the ability to quickly and accurately solve simple math exercises. Proficiency in MF is one of the buildings of arithmetic achievement during school. However, so far only paper and pencil tests have been used to assess MF. In the current study, we present the BGU‐MF (Ben‐Gurion University Math Fluency) test, a new computerized tool for MF. MF was assessed by accuracy rates, response times, and the number of performed exercises. In order to examine its reliability, participants performed the test twice. In order to examine its validity, participants performed manual format of MF from the Woodcock–Johnson battery. Results indicated high reliability and validity of the BGU‐MF test. Performance in the BGU‐MF also predicted abilities in the math matriculation exam and psychometric exam. The advantages of the BGU‐MF computerized tool over the manual tool and further implications of the BGU‐MF are discussed.

Neuropsychological correlates of cerebellar volumes in multiple sclerosis: an MRI volumetric analysis study.

The hallmark of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) pathophysiology is the damage to the myelin sheath around axons. The cerebellum is a predilection site for demyelination with a well-recognized role in motor and a rather understudied contribution to cognitive functions. The aim of this study is to investigate patterns of cerebellar grey and white matter pathology, expressed as reduced volume, as well as cortical thickness and their potential contribution to cognitive performance and disability status of patients with MS. 24 patients with MS underwent extensive neuropsychological assessment using paper and pencil tests and the Brain Health Assessment (BHA) tablet-based battery. Cerebellar lobular volumes and thickness were calculated using a volumetric analysis with automated segmentation of the cerebellum and its lobules. The main findings are a reduction of cerebellar grey matter (CGMV) and white matter volumes (CWMV) in lobule X and a widespread cerebellar cortical thinning in patients. Overall disease severity and neurological disability, assessed with the Expanded Disability Status Severity Scale, was correlated with fatigue and information processing speed tasks, but not with CGMV and CWMV. CWMV and CGMV of lobule I-II was negatively correlated with information processing speed, as well as visuospatial memory tests and, finally, inverse cortical thinning associations were noted between the whole cerebellum, lobule I-II, lobule III, lobule VI, Crus I, lobule VIIIA and information processing speed and verbal fluency tasks. The inverse associations observed may represent a compensatory mechanism activated in MS engaging additional high-level cortical areas functionally interconnected with the damaged cerebellum, in order to cope with the cognitive demands of a task.

Measuring language ability of students with compensatory multidimensional CAT: A post-hoc simulation study

The computerized adaptive tests (CAT) apply an adaptive process in which the items are tailored to individuals' ability scores. The multidimensional CAT (MCAT) designs differ in terms of different item selection, ability estimation, and termination methods being used. This study aims at investigating the performance of the MCAT designs used to measure the language ability of students and to compare the results of MCAT designs with the outcomes of corresponding paper–pencil tests. For this purpose, items in the English Proficiency Tests (EPT) were used to create a multi-dimensional item pool that consists of 599 items. The performance of the MCAT designs was evaluated and compared based on the reliability coefficients, root means square error (RMSE), test-length, and root means squared difference (RMSD) statistics, respectively. Therefore, 36 different conditions were investigated in total. The results of the post-hoc simulation designs indicate that the MCAT designs with the A-optimality item selection method outperformed MCAT designs with other item selection methods by decreasing the test length and RMSD values without any sacrifice in test reliability. Additionally, the best error variance stopping rule for each MCAT algorithm with A-optimality item selection could be considered as 0.25 with 27.9 average test length and 30 items for the fixed test-length stopping rule for the Bayesian MAP method. Overall, MCAT designs tend to decrease the test length by 60 to 65 percent and provide ability estimations with higher precision compared to the traditional paper–pencil tests with 65 to 75 items. Therefore, it is suggested to use the A-optimality method for item selection and the Bayesian MAP method for ability estimation for the MCAT designs since the MCAT algorithm with these specifications shows better performance than others.

A Review of Formative Assessment Techniques in Higher Education During COVID-19

To meaningfully determine how well students have achieved learning targets, instructors must adopt specific formative assessment techniques. During the COVID-19 pandemic, existing studies have discovered the techniques instructors in higher education use in their formative assessment practices. However, there has not been any consensus on the prevalent formative assessment techniques used. In this study, we examined empirical documents to determine to what extent formative assessment has supported formal or informal techniques, or both. A total of 15 samples of published documents on the formative assessment techniques used by instructors in higher education were purposively selected and subjected to summative content analysis. The findings revealed that instructors have used more formal than informal formative assessment techniques. The most predominant techniques were paper and pencil tests. The findings imply that formative assessment in higher education amid COVID-19 has followed responsive evaluation/feedback techniques compared to assessment conversations and dialogues. This calls for the need to refocus formative assessment to include both informal and formal techniques by embracing and adapting to technologically enhanced assessment and learning.

A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH INTO STEREOSCOPIC VISION

Stereopsis (or stereoscopic) vision is the ability to see depth of perception, which is created by the difference in angle of view between both eyes. The first process is known as simultaneous perception. Objects will fall on each corresponding retina and there will be a process of fusion of the two images into one. Then, the brain initiates three-dimensional perception in visual cortex, creating stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic vision will rapidly develop, especially at the age of 6-8 months of life. Stereoscopic is important in daily activities. There are many stereoacuity tests to evaluate stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic examinations are based on the principle of haploscope, anaglyph, or polaroid vectograph. There are qualitative and quantitative examination methods to assess stereoscopic vision. Qualitative examinations such as Horizontal Lang Two Pencil test and Synoptophore. Quantitative examination including Contour stereopsis test and Clinical random dot stereopsis test. The inability of the eye to see stereoscopic can be called stereoblindness. This can be affected by amblyopia, decreased visual acuity, or the presence of ocular misalignment. Inability to achieve stereoscopic vision will impact an individual to perform some daily life activities, and lead to an increase in difficulty interacting in the world.

YOUNG PUPILS’ ABILITY TO SOLVE PERSPECTIVE TAKING PROBLEMS

Spatial ability is an integral part of mathematics teaching and learning, but not every component of this ability has received enough research attention. In this paper, we focus on young pupils’ ability to solve two types of imaginary perspective-taking (IPT) problems given in the form of a test (the paper‒pencil test). The results show a difference in solving imaginary perspective-taking problems between preschoolers and second-grade pupils who took part in this research. Still, even the second-grade pupils have not fully developed this special spatial abil- ity because they are slightly less successful in appearance IPT2 tasks than in visibility IPT1 tasks. We noticed individual differences in both age groups. In addition, the preschool sample from Serbia is equally successful as the children from the Netherlands and significantly better than the children from the Cyprus sample of the same age reported by Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, Elia and Robitzsch (2015). The general conclusion and educational implication are that imaginary perspective-taking ability should be nurtured more in early school years.

Exploring Zimbabwean A-Level Mathematics Learners’ Understanding of the Determinant Concept

<p style="text-align: justify;">Learners bring prior knowledge to their learning environments. This prior knowledge is said to have an effect on how they encode and later retrieve new information learned. This research aimed at exploring ‘A’ level mathematics learners’ understanding of the determinant concept of 3×3 matrices. A problem-solving approach was used to determine learners' conceptions and errors made in calculating the determinant. To identify the conceptions; a paper and pencil test, learner interviews, and learner questionnaires were used. Ten learners participated in the research and purposive sampling was used to select learners who are doing the syllabus 6042/2 Zimbabwe School Examination Council (ZIMSEC). Data was analyzed qualitatively through an analysis of each learners' problem-solving performance where common themes were identified amongst the learners’ work. Results from the themes showed that Advanced level learners faced some challenges in calculating the determinant of 3×3 matrices. Learners were having challenges with the place signs used in 3×3 matrices, especially when using the method of cofactors. The findings reveal that learners had low levels of engagement with the concepts and the abstract nature of the concepts was the major source of these challenges. The study recommends that; teachers should engage learners for lifelong learning and apply some mathematical definitions in real-world problems. Teachers should address the issues raised in this research during the teaching and learning process. In addition, teachers should engage learners more through seminars where learners get to mingle with others from other schools.</p>

Integrating Blended Assessment in Blended Learning in a Nigerian University

Learning is assumed to have taken place only when a positive change in behaviour item of knowledge, skills and values occurred as a result of learners’ exposure to learning activities. The study, therefore, investigated the integration of blended assessment in blended learning in a Nigerian university. The study focused on the learning outcomes in blended learning using the Paper and Pencil Test, online assignment, Google classroom test and CBT test of undergraduates in EDU 212. The study adopted a repeated measure research design taught by five lecturers using face-to-face and google classroom interactions. One research hypothesis was postulated and tested using one-way ANOVA at a 0.05 level of significance. The population of the study was 45, 407 undergraduates of the University of Ilorin, Nigeria in the academic session 2018/2019. The target population comprised 10,908 undergraduates of the faculty of education. At 200 levels, 2,274 undergraduates registered for EDU 212 (Introduction to Educational Measurement and Evaluation). In the process, tests and end of the semester exams were administered to the students. Multiple-choice items were prepared based on the topics taught. Progressively, as the lectures continued, students were examined both offline and online. The finding of the study revealed a significant difference in blended assessment and favoured google classroom. It was concluded that blended assessment is an effective tool in enhancing better learning outcomes. There is, therefore, a need to have an effective, efficient, affordable and reliable Wi-Fi network in the university for blended assessment to be incorporated in teaching and learning.

Bibliometric Analysis of Articles on Computerized Adaptive Testing

The items that are suitable for everyone's own ability level with the support of computer programs instead of paper and pencil tests may help students to reach more accurate results. Computer adaptive tests (CAT), which are developed based on certain assumptions in this direction, are to create an optimum test for every person taking the exam. It then becomes essential to examine the development process of such important exams and to monitor what studies have contributed to this development in what year. Citespace is a program developed to map information fields, explain the relationship between different disciplines, examine and estimate the studies in a certain period of time, uncover the latest studies and predict the trend issues that occur according to the analysis of bibliographic records of related publications. In this study, it is aimed to find out what articles about CAT are produced in which areas, at what time periods e and which articles have a significant effect in these periods. CiteSpace program was used to make a document/article co-citation analysis. Articles on CAT between 1946-2016 were scanned by “or” connector. A total of 637 articles were used, the analyses were finalized according to the networks. As a result of the research, clusters were determined based on the relationship in the citations, articles that were the most cited and important among studies on CAT were presented

Associations between remote cognitive testing on an individual’s own digital device and amyloid burden on neuroimaging in clinically normal older adults: Results from Boston Remote Assessment for Neurocognitive Health (BRANCH)

AbstractBackgroundDigital cognitive testing completed on an individual’s own device, independently, and remotely is a highly appealing solution to sensitively capture early memory changes in preclinical AD. However, few digital assessments have been designed specifically for a preclinical AD population and validated against paper‐and‐pencil measures and relevant AD biomarkers. Here, we describe initial validation steps for the Boston Remote Assessment of Neurocognitive Health (BRANCH), web‐based cognitive testing targeting cognitive domains with AD susceptibility (e.g., cross‐modal associative memory, semantically facilitated learning and recall, and pattern separation) and using task stimuli relevant to everyday life. To determine the validity of BRANCH, we explored correlations between remote BRANCH to in‐clinic paper and pencil measures and PET amyloid burden.MethodA link to BRANCH was either texted or emailed to 128 clinically normal (CN) older adults participating in the Harvard Aging Brain Study. Participants completed the 4 BRANCH measures (modified Face Name Test, groceries test, categories test, signs test) over a mean 19 minutes. Participants had previously completed in‐clinic paper and pencil tests to compute a Preclinical Alzheimer’s Cognitive Composite (PACC‐5) as well as PET imaging with 11CPittsburg Compound‐B to estimate global amyloid burden. A composite of accuracy across BRANCH tasks was computed.ResultParticipants had a mean age of 74.38(Range 51‐89), were 82% Caucasian, and 60.7% female. They completed BRANCH on smartphones (26%), tablets (18%), laptops (26%), and desktops(29%). Only 2.59% of participants reported difficulty completing BRANCH on a post‐test survey. Lower BRANCH composite performance was associated with worse performance on in‐person paper and pencil measures (Figure 1; PACC; r=0.637, p<0.001). Lower BRANCH performance was associated with greater amyloid burden (r=‐0.275, p=0.003).ConclusionA digital memory assessment with ecologically‐valid tasks and stimuli is feasible for CN older adults to complete independently on their own devices. The relatively strong correlation observed between BRANCH and PACC suggests that BRANCH captures valid information about cognitive performance despite being collected remotely on an individual’s own device. The significant association between BRANCH and amyloid burden suggests that these remotely captured tasks may be promising tools to detect and track AD‐specific cognitive decrements on a larger scale.

DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE AS A CORE PART OF T.L.E. IN THE PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLSIN GUINOBATAN, ALBAY

This study was conducted to determine the difficulties encountered in teaching Agriculture as a core part of Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) in the Public Secondary Schools in Guinobatan, Albay. It discussed the profiles of 10 Agriculture teachers, the activities being conducted, the difficulties encountered, the extent of difficulty, the solutions applied by the teachers to address the difficulties encountered in line with classroom instruction and practical agriculture, and the proposed solutions to address the difficulties encountered. The study made used of questionnaire - checklist and rating scale as the instrument in data gathering. The data gathered were subjected to statistical analysis using frequency count, percentage and weighted mean to analyze the data obtained. The activities conducted by the Agriculture teachers during classroom instruction include oral recitation, paper and pencil test, and group activity. During practical agriculture, Horticulture teachers let their students plant crops but it was found out that none of them ever conducted soil sampling activity. For Animal Production, it was revealed that the activities conducted by the teachers were mere familiarization rather than actual demonstration of the subject. Moreover, teachers encountered numerous difficulties that serve as hindrances in their teaching profession. The difficulties they encountered during classroom instruction were the unavailability of resources, short time allotment, financial constraints and inability of the students to understand the lesson. On the practical agriculture, teachers encountered difficulties because of short time allotment, financial constraints in providing the needed materials to be used for hands-on laboratory, and lack of land, farm tools, equipment and facilities to support the practical aspects of the subject. As teachers, they applied solutions to address the difficulties encountered by consulting the principal/department head with regards to the unavailability of learning resources and farm resources. Teachers also used different teaching strategies so that slow learners can cope up in the class discussion and they extend time for hands-on laboratory.

From Personal Experiences of Transformative Learning on Educational Challenges and Reforms in Secondary School in China

Educational policy generating 21st-century skills is accelerating, but Chinese education still employs traditional teaching such as memorizing and test-based instructional practices. The pencil and paper tests, no matter how sophisticated, are hard-pressed to measure interpersonal, intrapersonal skills, and the penetration of educational core values into secondary schools internationally, which is weak. This article aims to navigate the secondary school challenges and proposed reforms through analyzing the over 20 years of the author's experience. Findings show that high stakes cause teachers, school principals, parents, and students to disincentivize deeper learning. The exam-oriented teaching and learning approach causes students who might obtain a high score but lower functional performance. Parents' high hopes cause educational inequality and restrict students to develop their skills. Worse, the school principal utilized the power and authority in leading school development and evaluated teachers' performance based on students' test scores that force teachers to demand students to complete the mock practices and test. Because of test-based accountability, the study suggested that secondary school in China necessitates to abolish the "Gaokao" system instead of using a whole-personal assessment. The school leadership needs to shift from bureaucratic management to transformational, Junzi, and adaptive leadership. School principals advocate parents' commitment and deliver a quality of education to secondary school students. Therefore, future research explores how the "Gaokao" system causes inequality and impacts 21st-century skills for secondary school students' academic, emotional, and behavioral development through a comparative mixed research design.

Design of Computerized Adaptive Testing Module into Our Dynamic Adaptive Hypermedia System

By the end of the 20th century, the most common and traditional paper and pencil tests (PBT) were faced with an increasing set of difficulties and drawbacks. Proceed and meet the measurement and evaluation needs of the 21st century; it is mandatory to have radical and qualitative changes. The accelerating pace of technological innovation in Education shows a clear path to computer-based testing, which offers a more engaging and innovative testing environment, as well as the ability to obtain instant results and feedback, the use of dynamic, multimedia learning objects (LO), and the implementation of adaptive, individualized assessment approaches. In this sense, this paper presents an adaptive formative assessment framework in which test adaptation is based on multiple criteria. The presented system bases its adaptation on the test takers' proficiency, schemata, desirable learning goal, cognitive level, and learning style. The main objective of this paper is to discuss the value of the adaptive testing system. Therefore, it presents the design and implementation of the system and the adaptive rules employed.

Grocery Shopping Has Become Complicated. Managing Dual-tasks in a Supermarket for Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease

The executive functions neuropsychological assessment with paper and pencil tests is particularly sensitive to the lack of ecological validity. If the purpose of the clinician is not to get a merely theoretical measure, but to assess the deficit impact on patient’s life, the classical tests for executive functions are not very informative. A more ecological measure could be provided by the direct observation of the patient in his daily life, but this practice is largely cost-demanding and difficult to implement. Moreover by assuming an enactive cognition approach, the role of interaction between the embodied behaviors and the affordances provided in the coupling with the environment in which the agent’s activity is placed remains unrevealed from classical neuropsychological tests. Recently, the introduction of virtual reality simulations in clinical neuropsychology seems to provide peculiar opportunities for the evaluation of the ecological impact of disease in neurological patients, while introducing new inputs for the research on embodied cognition and enactive knowledge acquisition. This contribution aims in analyzing how a virtual reality dual-task test, set in the scene of a supermarket, can be used to assess executive functions in adult/elderly population and in patients with Alzheimer disease. The results show that the test has convergent validity, compared to the Mini Mental State Evaluation and Tower of London tests and discriminant validity in identifying the degenerative disease, compared to healthy subjects matched for age, sex and education.

Quantitative and Qualitative Differences in the Canonical and the Reverse Distance Effect and Their Selective Association With Arithmetic and Mathematical Competencies

Understanding the relationship between symbolic numerical abilities and individual differences in mathematical competencies has become a central research endeavor in the last years. Evidence on this foundational relationship is often based on two behavioral signatures of numerical magnitude and numerical order processing: thecanonicaland thereverse distance effect.Theformerindicates faster reaction times for the comparison of numerals that are far in distance (e.g., 2 8) compared to numerals that are close in distance (e.g., 2 3). The latter indicates faster reaction times for the ordinal judgment of numerals (i.e., are numerals in ascending/descending order) that are close in distance (e.g., 2 3 4) compared to numerals that are far in distance (e.g., 2 4 6). While a substantial body of literature has reported consistent associations between thecanonical distance effectand arithmetic abilities, rather inconsistent findings have been found for thereverse distance effect. Here, we tested the hypothesis that estimates of thereverse distance effectshow qualitative differences (i.e., not all participants show areverse distance effectin the expected direction) rather than quantitative differences (i.e., all individuals show areverse distance effect, but to a different degree), and that inconsistent findings might be a consequence of this variation. We analyzed data from 397 adults who performed a computerized numerical comparison task, a computerized numerical order verification task (i.e., are three numerals presented in order or not), a paper pencil test of arithmetic fluency, as well as a standardized test to assess more complex forms of mathematical competencies. We found discriminatory evidence for the two distance effects. While estimates of thecanonical distance effectshowed quantitative differences, estimates of thereverse distance effectshowed qualitative differences.Comparisons between individuals who demonstrated an effect and individuals who demonstrated noreverse distance effectconfirmed a significant moderation on the correlation with mathematical abilities. Significantly larger effects were found in the group who showed an effect. These findings confirm that estimates of thereverse distance effectare subject to qualitative differences and that we need to better characterize the underlying mechanisms/strategies that might lead to these qualitative differences.