Peer Risk Research Articles

The Influence of Family and Peer Risk Networks on Drug Use Practices and Other Risks among Mexican American Noninjecting Heroin Users

Noninjecting heroin use (NIU) is spreading among social networks of young Mexican American polydrug users. This article examines the influence of family and peer networks on NIU behavior and other drug practices and risks. This study delineates the extent to which a culturally relevant modification of the "network facilitation" theoretical approach can increase both a theoretical and practical understanding of drug use and related risk behaviors. Using the methods of analytic ethnography, it identifies, describes, and explains variations in the social networks among this marginalized population and how specific aspects of Mexican American culture (familismo, and collectivismo) affects risk behaviors.

Psychosocial Functioning Problems Over Time Among High-Risk Youths

The authors report the results of latent class analyses and latent class transition analyses of antisocial behavior risk factors among 137 youths participating in a juvenile diversion program. The study examined the youths' latent classifications using baseline and 1-year follow-up measures of family, peer, education, and mental health risk factors. Latent class transition analyses were conducted to determine the stability and change of latent class membership across two time points. For both baseline and follow-up measures, latent class analyses suggested that two latent classes were most appropriate for characterizing the youths using the four domains of risk factors. One class reflected youths reporting few problems in any risk area; the second class reflected youths reporting problems in many of the risk domains. The latent class transition analyses indicated that about two thirds of the youths experienced similar problems over time. The results emphasize the heterogeneity of this study's sample. Policy implications and intervention service needs are discussed.

The Moderating Effects of Culture on Peer Deviance and Alcohol Use among High-Risk African-American Adolescents

African-American adolescents have lower rates of alcohol consumption than White youth. However, African-American youth suffer disproportionately more adverse social, mental, and physical health outcomes related to alcohol use. Affiliating with negative peers is a risk factor for alcohol initiation and consumption. Cultural variables have shown moderating effects against other risk factors for African-American youth and therefore were the focus of this study. Specifically, we tested whether three culturally-relevant variables, Africentric beliefs, religiosity, and ethnic identity were promotive or protective for alcohol initiation and use within the context of negative peer affiliations. The sample consisted of 114 at-risk African-American adolescents whose ages ranged from 13 to 20. Participants were administered a questionnaire with measures of alcohol initiation and use, peer risk behaviors, ethnic identity, Africentric beliefs, religiosity, and demographic items. Peer risk behaviors accounted for significant percentages of the variance in age of alcohol initiation, lifetime use, and current and heavy alcohol use after adjusting for age and gender. Cultural variables showed both promotive and protective effects. Africentric beliefs were promotive of delayed alcohol initiation, whereas both Africentrism and religiosity moderated peer risk behaviors effect on alcohol initiation. Africentric beliefs were also inversely related to lifetime alcohol use revealing a promotive effect. Moreover, there were significant protective effects of ethnic identity and religiosity on heavy alcohol consumption. One implication of these findings is that prevention programs that infuse cultural values and practices such as Africentrism, ethnic identity, and religiosity may delay alcohol initiation and reduce use especially for youth with high risk peers.

The Impact of Constraints on Value-Added

While cynics view investment constraints as a lawyers9 way of managing risk or simply as a manifestation of the risk management of the 1950s when no computers and risk models were available, other observers regard constraints as a worst case safeguard against a breakdown in risk management practices and a practical reality of peer risk in institutional investing. A closer look at the costs of constraints suggests a new methodology to measure the impact of individual constraints on an investor9s value added. This approach differs from current methods that either focus on a headline measure of information ratio shrinkage (also called transfer coefficient) or express the impact of constraints as distortions in implied alphas.

Do cognitive, physiological, and psychosocial risk and promotive factors predict desistance from delinquency in males?

Relatively few studies have examined cognitive, physiological, and psychosocial promotive and risk factors that can be linked to desistance from delinquency in community samples. This paper reports on a sample of boys first studied at age 7 and then followed up yearly to age 20. Around age 16, most of the boys received a range of cognitive tests; at that time, information regarding their resting heart rate and skin conductance activity in response to aversive stimuli was also collected. Several psychosocial and two cognitive measures distinguished delinquents from nondelinquents around age 16. Among the promotive factors associated with low delinquency were good housing quality, low community crime (parent and youth report), verbal IQ, delayed verbal memory, and sustained attention. Predictive analyses discriminating between desisters and persisters in delinquency between ages 17 and 20 showed that all of the significant predictors were either child or peer risk factors. None of the cognitive, physiological, parenting, or community factors significantly predicted desistance from delinquency. In addition, no promotive factors were significantly related to desistance. The final set of analyses compared persisters, desisters, and nondelinquents in terms of their adult adjustment. Desisters were similar to persisters in that desisters continued to display serious problems in anxiety, failure to graduate from high school, no post high school education, being a nonstudent and unemployed, daily cigarette use, and weekly marijuana use. Desisters scored low on depression and weekly heavy drinking and in these respects were indistinguishable from nondelinquents and better off than persisters.

Risk and Protective Factors Predictive of Adolescent Pregnancy: A Longitudinal, Prospective Study

One hundred twenty-eight Latina and African American girls from high-risk environments (e.g., poverty, family history of teen parenting, etc.) were studied from age 13 through age 19 to prospectively identify the protective factors that might guard against teenage pregnancy. Results indicated that involved and strict parenting during early adolescence buffered against pregnancy under conditions of multiple family risks and peer risks. Low childbearing intentions and desires during early adolescence also forecasted a reduced likelihood of pregnancy. Findings suggest the risk and protective factors evident during early adolescence that contribute to and potentially guard against subsequently experiencing an adolescent pregnancy.

Workplace and HIV-related sexual behaviours and perceptions among female migrant workers

Data from 1,543 female migrants working in eight occupational clusters in Beijing and Nanjing, China were analysed to examine the association of workplace with HIV-related behaviours and perceptions. For sexually experienced women (n = 666, 43.2%), those working in entertainment establishments or personal service (e.g., nightclubs, dancing halls, barbershops, beauty salons, massage parlours, etc.) engaged in risky sexual practices twice as frequently as those working in non-entertainment establishments (e.g. restaurants, stalls, domestic service, factories, etc.). About 10% of women in the entertainment establishments reported having sold sex, 30% having multiple sexual partners and 40% having sex with men with multiple sexual partners. The rate of consistent condom use was less than 15%. They also tended to have a higher level of perceptions of both peer risk involvement and positive expectancy of risk behaviours, and lower perceptions of severity of STDs and HIV. For women who were not sexually experienced, those working in ‘stalls’ or ‘domestic service’ tended to perceive higher peer risk involvement, less severity of HIV infection, and less effectiveness of protective behaviour. The occupational pattern of sexual risk behaviours and perceptions observed in the current study indicates employment conditions are associated with HIV risk. Intervention strategies should be tailored to address occupational-related factors.

Alcohol intoxication and sexual risk behaviors among rural-to-urban migrants in China

Background: The migrant population in China is at high risk for sexual risk behavior and alcohol intoxication. Information about the prevalence of alcohol intoxication and its association with sexual risk behavior among migrants is needed for designing effective intervention prevention programs for reduction in alcohol abuse and HIV infection. Methods: Cross-sectional data were collected from 2153 sexually experienced young rural-to-urban migrants in Beijing and Nanjing, China, in 2002. Results: Approximately one-third of the participants had been intoxicated with alcohol at least once during the previous month, with more males than females reporting intoxication (40.2% versus 23.7%, p < 0.001). Compared to non-intoxicated participants, respondents with alcohol intoxication in previous 30 days reported more psychological problems, including higher depression scores, lower levels of satisfaction with life and work, and higher perception of peer involvement in risk behavior. Intoxicated respondents were more likely to engage in premarital sex than non-intoxicated respondents (76% versus 60.2%, p < 0.001), have multiple sexual partners (13.4% versus 5.2%, p < 0.001), purchase sex (12.6% versus 4.9%, p < 0.001), and sell sex (10.1% versus 3.7%, p < 0.001). However, there was no association between alcohol intoxication and inconsistent/non-use of condoms. Multivariate analysis controlling for depression, peer risk involvement, age, gender, and other socio-demographic variables indicated that alcohol intoxication was independently correlated with premarital sex, multiple sexual partners, and buying and selling sex. Conclusions: Compared to the general Chinese population, levels of intoxication were elevated among Chinese rural-to-urban migrants. Alcohol intoxication was associated with sexual risk behaviors. HIV/AIDS prevention and intervention efforts should include components of alcohol use/abuse prevention for an effective reduction of sexual risk among young rural-to-urban migrants in China.

Risk factors for alcohol and other drug disorders: A review

The role of comorbid psychological disorders in alcohol and other drug disorders is considered in the context of other individual, family, peer and broader environmental risk factors. Although peer and environmental factors play an important role in all drug use, family factors, psychological difficulties and emotional distress play a crucial role in the transition from controlled to excessive drug use. Essentially, dysfunctional parent – child relationships and severe family disruption contribute to emotional distress and to a sense of alienation from conventional sources of reward (family, school, work, and intimate relationships). For people who are distressed or alienated, heavy drug involvement can be a way to manage negative affect, bond with others, and/or experience alternative source of reward. Even people who use drugs to manage negative affect, however, are also likely to use them in some circumstances such as to have fun and be social. Excessive substance use also results in emotional distress, and it can be difficult to distinguish cause and consequence.

Willingness to Participate in HIV/STD Prevention Activities among Chinese Rural-To-Urban Migrants

Data from 4,208 migrants aged 18-30 years old in Beijing and Nanjing, China, were analyzed to examine the correlates of willingness to participate (WTP) in HIV/STD prevention intervention activities among Chinese rural-to-urban migrants. Overall, 83.3% of the respondents would be willing to participate. Increased WTP was associated with employment in the industrial sector (OR=1.59, 95% CI: 1.11-2.29), migrating to cities to learn more about the outside world (OR=1.31, 95% CI: 1.08-1.59), prior experience with health maintenance (OR=1.36, 95% CI: 1.11-1.66), higher level of HIV/AIDS awareness (OR=1.16, 95% CI: 1.02-1.31), and perceived severity of risk behaviors (OR=1.32, 95% CI: 1.04-1.68). Decreased WTP was associated with increased involvement in health risk behaviors (OR=0.50, 95% CI: 0.35-0.73), increased perceptions of peer risk involvement (OR=0.81, 95% CI: 0.68-0.98), perceived intrinsic rewards for risk behaviors (OR=0.81, 95% CI: 0.68-0.96) and perceptions of HIV-related stigma (OR=0.68, 95% CI: 0.53-0.89). The high level of WTP suggests that HIV/STD prevention activities are acceptable among rural-to-urban migrants. Their awareness of HIV/AIDS should be increased and HIV-related stigma should be reduced to increase the level of WTP. Recruitment and retention of individuals with high-risk behavior in prevention activities will be critical and challenging.

Family Relationship Quality and Contact with Deviant Peers as Predictors of Adolescent Problem Behaviors: The Moderating Role of Gender

This investigation examines how family relationship quality and contact with deviant peers (CDP) contributed to change in problem behaviors in a sample of German adolescents (M age = 14.6 years). In particular, the authors were interested in whether gender of the adolescent and parent moderated these associations, and whether individual differences in the average level and/or changes in family and peer risk factors predicted change in problem behaviors across a 12- to 18-month period. Two waves of data collected from 248 adolescents, mothers (N = 248), and fathers (N = 176) were analyzed using path analysis. Results revealed that CDP was directly associated with increases in problem behaviors, whereas family influence on problem behaviors was indirect and varied as a function of gender. Specifically, family cohesion and closeness with fathers were associated with females'CDP only. Findings are discussed in terms of theories positing females' sensitivity to family stress and the fathers' role for females' behavioral development.

Relative influences of perceived parental monitoring and perceived peer involvement on adolescent risk behaviors: an analysis of six cross-sectional data sets

Purpose To assess: (a) the relative impact of monitoring and peer involvement among six cohorts of African-American youth in their mid-adolescent years, over a decade of research in one urban area, and (b) the consistency of the impact of the two influences over time. Methods Baseline data were collected from six cohorts involving 1279 low income African-American youth aged 13 to 16 years involved in community based studies conducted over a decade in an urban area. Self-reported behaviors, and perceptions of parental monitoring and peer risk–involvement were assessed through structured questions. Data were analyzed by frequency distribution, one-way ANOVA, and multiple logistic regression. Results There was a rapid increase in sexual activity and substance use behaviors during mid-adolescence. Monitoring had a protective influence on substance use behaviors and sexual activity, but had no impact on condom use or drug trafficking. Peer involvement influenced all evaluated risk behaviors. The influences overall did not statistically change over time. Conclusions Despite the marked increase in risk behaviors during mid-adolescence, monitoring and peer in-volvement both influenced adolescent behaviors across each cohort.

Peer Risk Behavior and Denial of HIV/AIDS Among Adolescents

The main purpose of this study was to investigate perceived risk behavior of peers in relation to sexual intercourse, and its associations with adolescents' personal risk behavior and their denial of HIV/AIDS risk. A sample of 291 Israeli adolescents, aged 14-18, who reported on their closest friend having been engaged in sexual intercourse assessed five peer sexual risk behaviors: age at first intercourse; number of sexual partners; use of any contraceptives; use of condoms; and drinking of alcohol before or during sexual intercourse. Respondents also reported on personal sexual behavior and completed a HIV/AIDS-related denial questionnaire. Positive associations were found between the perception of sexual risk behaviors of peers and respondents' risk behaviors. Denial of HIV/AIDS risk was associated with perceived risk behaviors of peers as well as personal risk behaviors. Several interpretations of the results are offered in the discussion. One possible viewpoint which merits further research is that perceived peer behaviors may affect sexual risk taking as well as the denial of HIV/AIDS. These claims should be further investigated in research aimed at interventions to reduce adolescents' risk behavior

The relationship between exposure to adolescent suicide and subsequent suicide risk. 2002 Student Award Address.

In this study we examined the relationship between the exposure of adolescents to the suicide of a peer and subsequent suicide risk. Two hundred sixty-eight high school students filled out self-report questionnaires assessing demographic information, exposure to the suicide of a peer, relationship between survivor and suicide victim, and four measures of suicide risk (suicidal ideation, past and present suicide-related behavior, depressive symptomatology, and reasons for living). The 27 individuals who had been exposed to the suicide of a peer were classified as friends or acquaintances of suicide victims. Twenty-seven controls were then matched on gender, age, and ethnicity. The results of this study failed to support any of the hypothesized differences between exposed and unexposed adolescents of differing relationship categories on measures of suicide risk or depressive symptomatology. Three possible explanations for the results are evaluated and discussed within a conceptual framework.

Differential risks of covarying and pure components in mother and teacher reports of externalizing and internalizing behavior across ages 5 to 14.

In a sample of 585 children assessed in kindergarten through 8th grade, we fit a confirmatory factor model to both mother- and teacher-reported symptoms on the Achenbach checklists (CBCL, TRF) and determined that a covariation factor of externalizing and internalizing behaviors existed, in addition to the pure-form factors of externalizing and internalizing for each reporter. In 3 structural equation models, between 8 and 67% of the variance in these 6 latent factors was accounted for by a set of antecedent child, sociocultural, parenting, and peer risk variables. Each of the 6 latent factors, taken 2 at a time, was predicted by a unique set of risk variables; however, there were some patterns that held for both mother- and teacher-report symptom factors: Child temperamental unadaptability and female gender were predictors of higher internalizing symptoms; child temperamental resistance to control, parental harsh punishment, male gender, low SES, and peer rejection were related to higher externalizing symptoms whereas child temperamental unadaptability was related to lower externalizing symptoms; and peer rejection and family stress were also related to the covarying, externalizing-plus-internalizing component of both mother and teacher reports.

Longitudinal influence of perceptions of peer and parental factors on African American adolescent risk involvement.

To explore the long-term contributions of perceived peer and parental influences on adolescent risk and protective behaviors (sexual involvement, condom use, and drug use), we assessed self-reported behaviors and perceptions of peer risk involvement and parental supervision and communication among 383 low-income, urban African Americans aged 9 to 15 years at baseline over a 4-year period. Baseline perceptions of peer sexual involvement were significantly associated with youth sexual behavior at baseline and were predictive of sexual involvement through all 4 years of follow-up. Perceived parental monitoring was inversely correlated with sexual involvement through 3 years of follow-up. Perceptions of peer condom use were associated with increased levels of condom use at baseline and through 6 months of follow-up. Positive parental communication was correlated with increased condom use. Drug use was higher among youths who perceived peers or family members to be using drugs and was inversely correlated with increased parental monitoring and supervision. Stepwise regression revealed peer and parental influences for all three behaviors. Perceptions of both peer and parental behaviors influence long-term risk and protective behaviors of adolescents. Therefore, parents should be included in adolescent risk-reduction intervention efforts. Inclusion of friends and/or changing youth perceptions of peer involvement may also be effective intervention strategies.

The Awareness of Risky Peer Group Behaviors on School Grounds as Predictors of Students' Victimization on School Grounds

This study examined how risky peer group behaviors (e.g. being aware of or witnessing drug use, students carrying weapons, or vandalism on school grounds) had on students' experience of school victimization. This article is the second study in a two part series. The first article (Part I) was published in this journal and focused on elementary schools. This article (Part II) extends the findings from the prior study and explores how the awareness of risky peer behaviors predict victimization in junior high schools. The sample was drawn from central and northern Israel and consisted of 1,184 Arab and 947 Jewish students (grades 7th-9th). Students completed an anonymous self-report questionnaire, which was based on the California School Climate Survey (Furlong et al., 1997). The descriptive statistics suggest that junior high schools have different rates of peer risk behaviors and victimization. However, findings from a hierarchical regression analysis suggest that risky peer group behaviors in school contexts are one of the strongest predictors of victimization. The relationship between risky peer groups and victimization was similar for both elementary schools and high schools. The only major difference between the findings in Part I and Part II was that being a male emerged as a stronger predictor of victimization in junior high schools. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Perceived Event Frequency and the Optimistic Bias: Evidence for a Two-Process Model of Personal Risk Judgments

People often judge themselves to be at lower risk for various negative life events than are their peers. The two empirical studies presented here show that the magnitude of this optimistic bias can be either negatively or positively related to the perceived frequency of the event, depending on whether people judge their own risk relative to that of an average peer (make comparative risk judgments) or judge their own and an average peer's risk separately (make absolute risk judgments). A new two-process model is presented to account for these results. The model combines a better-than-average heuristic with elements of the singular target-focused and singular- distributional models of Klar and colleagues (Klar & Giladi, 1997, 1999; Klar, Medding, & Sarel, 1996). The empirical results and model have many implications for the study of personal risk judgments, the optimistic bias, and risk-taking behavior.

Moving Targets: Modeling Developmental Trajectories of Adolescent Alcohol Misuse, Individual and Peer Risk Factors, and Intervention Effects

From a developmental perspective, a central goal of prevention is to alter behaviors that are already changing-that is, to redirect potentially risky trajectories. This multiwave panel study examines the longer-term effects of a prevention program on trajectories of alcohol misuse and related risk factors (susceptibility to peer pressure to misbehave and exposure to peer alcohol use). We conceptually and empirically compare Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) and Latent Growth Curve Modeling (LCM), working within the tradition of each technique and noting similarities and differences in approaches, hypothesis operationalizations, and findings. Five waves of data (Grades 6 to 10, n = 675) from the Alcohol Misuse Prevention Study, a randomized treatment-control group study designed to examine the effects of a school-based prevention program that focused on increasing social (especially refusal) skills, were analyzed. HLM and LCM analyses showed susceptibility, exposure, and alcohol misuse increased mostly linearly across adolescence and covaried positively within and across time, arguing that they exist in a mutually reinforcing web of influence. Both techniques revealed small treatment effects, with the prevention reducing the normative increase in alcohol misuse during adolescence. There were some minor, but important, differences between HLM and LCM in conclusions about intervention effects. Substantive and developmental methodological implications are discussed.

Alcohol Use in the Year Before Marriage: Alcohol Expectancies and Peer Drinking as Proximal Influences on Husband and Wife Alcohol Involvement

Models of adolescent alcohol involvement that include individual difference, family, and peer risk factors indicate a significant association between the drinking of adolescents and that of their peers. Peer drinking influences, however, have not been investigated extensively in integrative models of adult drinking. The purpose of this study was to test a model of adult drinking that incorporated the potentially important risk factor of partner drinking and in which proximal risk factors (peer drinking, alcohol expectancies) were hypothesized to be strongly associated with adult alcohol use and to mediate relationships between more distal risk factors and drinking. Couples (n = 389) were assessed at the time of their first marriage. Separate, self-administered questionnaires were completed at home by both husbands and wives. Distal risk factors included family history of alcoholism, antisocial behavior, and depressive symptomatology. Substantive relationships were tested in a model that included spousal associations with respect to distal risk factors, proximal risk factors, and drinking. Findings demonstrate the unique association of alcohol expectancies and peer drinking with adult alcohol use. Of particular relevance is the significance of the social network as a correlate of adult drinking. A peer network characterized by a higher level of alcohol involvement was strongly associated with heavier drinking among both men and women. This relationship was independent of sociodemographic and individual difference factors, alcohol expectancies, and partner's drinking. Results also demonstrate the similarity between husband and wife drinking, an association that cannot be attributed to assorting with respect to the other risk factors. The social network continues to significantly impact drinking behavior in adulthood. The relevancy of peer and partner drinking influences to adult alcohol involvement suggests that the immediate social environment may have a prominent role in the continuity/discontinuity of heavy or problem drinking during the transition to marriage.