Peer Approval Research Articles

Effects of child abuse, adolescent violence, peer approval and pro-violence attitudes on intimate partner violence in adulthood.

Children's exposure to violence increases their risk for later victimisation and perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, the relative influence of child abuse, adolescent violence, peer approval of violence and pro-violence attitudes on later IPV is not well established. Analyses focus on the prediction of adult IPV from variables measured in childhood and adolescence to establish the unique influence of earlier victimisation and perpetration of violence, as well as other variables grounded in theory and empirical findings. Data are from a longitudinal study that began in the 1970s with a sample of 457 preschool-aged children who were reassessed as adults. Outcomes of adult IPV victimisation and perpetration types were regressed on predictors of parent-reported child abuse, officially recorded child maltreatment, adolescent victimisation, violence perpetration, pro-violence attitudes and peer approval of violence during adolescence, controlling for childhood Socio Economic Status (SES), age in adolescence and gender. Dating violence victimisation and peer approval of dating violence in adolescence emerged as the unique predictors of IPV victimisation and perpetration in adulthood. Official child maltreatment predicted IPV perpetration. Results underscore the importance of prevention programmes and strategies to disrupt the cycle of violence at its early stages, as well as interventions during adolescence targeting peer influences. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Personal and perceived peer use and attitudes towards the use of nonmedical prescription stimulants to improve academic performance among university students in seven European countries

BackgroundOverestimations of non-prescribed stimulant use of peers are well documented in the USA and have also been identified as predictive of personal stimulant consumption. This study aimed to examine whether overestimations of peer use and approval of the use are associated with personal use and attitude towards the use of non-prescribed stimulants among European university students. MethodThe EU funded ‘Social Norms Intervention for the prevention of Polydrug usE (SNIPE)’ study was conducted in seven European countries. In a web-based questionnaire, 4482 students were asked about their personal use and their attitude towards non-prescribed stimulant use, as well as the perceived peer use and peer attitude. Results59% of students thought that the majority of their peers used non-prescribed stimulants more frequently than themselves, and only 4% thought that the use of the majority was lower than their personal use. The perception that the majority of peers had used non-prescribed stimulants at least once was significantly associated with higher odds for personal use of non-prescribed stimulants (OR: 3.30, 95% CI: 2.32–4.71). In addition, the perception that the majority of peers approved of the non-prescribed use of stimulants was associated with a 4.03 (95% CI: 3.35–4.84) times higher likelihood for personal approval. DiscussionEuropean university students generally perceived the non-prescribed use of stimulants of peers to be higher than their personal use. This perception, as well as a perception of higher approval in the peer group, was associated with a higher likelihood of personal non-prescribed stimulant medication use and approval.

What factors influence health professionals to use decision aids for Down syndrome prenatal screening?

BackgroundHealth professionals are expected to engage pregnant women in shared decision making to help them make informed values-based decisions about prenatal screening. Patient decision aids (PtDAs) foster shared decision-making, but are rarely used in this context. Our objective was to identify factors that could influence health professionals to use a PtDA for decisions about prenatal screening for Down syndrome during a clinical pregnancy follow-up.MethodsWe planned to recruit a purposive sample of 45 health professionals (obstetrician-gynecologists, family physicians and midwives) involved in the care of pregnant women in three clinical sites (15 per site). Participating health professionals first watched a video showing two simulated consecutive prenatal follow-up consultations during which a pregnant woman, her partner and a health professional used a PtDA about Down syndrome prenatal screening. Participants were then interviewed about factors that would influence their use of the PtDA. Questions were based on the Theoretical Domains Framework. We performed content analyses of transcribed verbatim interviews.ResultsOut of 42 eligible health professionals approached, 36 agreed to be interviewed (86 % response rate). Of these, 27 were female (75 %), nine were obstetrician-gynecologists (25 %), 15 were family physicians (42 %), and 12 were midwives (33 %), with a mean age of 42.1 ± 11.6 years old. We identified 35 distinct factors reported by 20 % or more participants that were mapped onto 10 of the 12 of the Theoretical Domains Framework domains. The six most frequently mentioned factors influencing use of the PtDA were: 1) a positive appraisal (n = 29, 81 %, beliefs about consequences domain); 2) its availability in the office (n = 27, 75 %, environmental context and resources domain); 3) colleagues’ approval (n = 27, 75 %, social influences domain); 4) time constraints (n = 26, 72 %, environmental context and resources domain); 5) finding it a relevant source of information (n = 24, 67 %, motivation and goals domain); and 6) not knowing any PtDAs (n = 23, 64 %, knowledge domain).ConclusionsAppraisal, PtDA availability, peer approval, time concerns, evidence and PtDA awareness all affect whether health professionals are likely to use a PtDA to help pregnant women make informed decision about Down syndrome screening. Implementation strategies will need to address these factors.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12884-016-1053-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Tobacco outlet density near home and school: Associations with smoking and norms among US teens

This study examined whether living or going to school in neighborhoods with higher tobacco outlet density is associated with higher odds of cigarette smoking among teens, and with perceptions of greater smoking prevalence and peer approval. Using an Internet panel that is representative of US households, we matched data from teen-parent pairs (n=2771, surveyed June 2011–December 2012) with environmental data about home and school neighborhoods. Density was measured as the number of tobacco outlets per square mile for a ½-mile roadway service area around each participant's home and school. Logistic regressions tested relationships between tobacco outlet density near home and schools with ever smoking. Linear regressions tested relationships between density, perceived prevalence and peer approval. Models were adjusted for teen, parent/household and neighborhood characteristics. In total, 41.0% of US teens (ages 13–16) lived within ½ mile of a tobacco outlet, and 44.4% attended school within 1000ft of a tobacco outlet. Higher tobacco outlet density near home was associated with higher odds of ever smoking, although the relationship was small, OR=1.01, 95% CI (1.00, 1.02). Higher tobacco outlet density near home was also associated with perceptions that more adults smoked, coef.=0.09, 95% CI (0.01, 0.17). Higher tobacco outlet density near schools was not associated with any outcomes. Living in neighborhoods with higher tobacco outlet density may contribute to teen smoking by increasing access to tobacco products and by cultivating perceptions that smoking is more prevalent. Policy interventions to restrict tobacco outlet density should not be limited to school environments.

Positive Feelings After Casual Sex: The Role of Gender and Traditional Gender-Role Beliefs

The purpose of this study was to identify predictors of positive and negative affect following casual sex. Specifically, the primary goal was to investigate how traditional gender-role beliefs, peer approval of casual sex, perceptions of others, sexual assertiveness, and sexual pleasure influence affective experiences. Second, we aimed to determine the extent to which these associations were comparable for men and women. Although we expected mean differences on many of these constructs (e.g., men perceiving more peer approval), we expected the relationships between these constructs to be comparable for women and men. Participants ages 18 to 35 (N = 585) were recruited from a large university and Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and described their most recent casual sex experience in a self-report questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses indicated that gender-role beliefs were significantly associated with less sexual assertiveness and more negative perceptions of others; for women they were also associated with less peer approval of casual sex. For women and men, sexual assertiveness predicted sexual pleasure; and sexual pleasure was associated with affect. To decrease the gender discrepancy in positive affect and sexual pleasure, it is important to develop a comprehensive understanding of the interrelationships among norms, casual sex experiences, and affect.

Differential Reactions to School Bonds, Peers, and Victimization in the Case of Adolescent Substance Use

The present study addresses whether sex moderates the effects of known risk and protective factors for alcohol and drug use. Simultaneously drawing on traditional delinquency theories and feminist theoretical insight, the authors first included product terms in regression equations for the total sample and then estimated separate regression equations for girls and boys to determine the extent to which the theoretical constructs differentially affected their substance use. In a large sample of 8th to 12th graders, stronger effects of peer approval, school bonds, and victimizations were evident in the equations for girls, while peer pressure mattered more for boys. Implications of moderated effects for theoretical and empirical developments are discussed.

Barroom Aggression Among Australian Men: Associations With Heavy Episodic Drinking, Conformity to Masculine Norms, and Personal and Perceived Peer Approval of Barroom Aggression.

Research suggests that heavy episodic drinking (HED), perceived peer norms, and personal approval of aggression influence male barroom aggression (MBA). Qualitative research suggests that conformity to hegemonic masculine gender norms also influences MBA; however, quantitative research on the direct and indirect influence of masculinity on MBA is limited. This study tested the relationships between HED, conformity to masculine gender norms, and personal approval and peer approval of MBA on MBA perpetration, as well as the indirect effect of masculine norms on MBA via HED. A convenience sample of Australian men (N = 322; mean age = 21.05 years, SD = 1.95; 76.9% university students) completed an online questionnaire, assessing HED and MBA over the previous year, and subscales of the Beliefs and Attitudes Towards Male Alcohol-Related Aggression Inventory and Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46. Negative binomial regression analyses found that, overall, HED, male peer approval, and personal approval of MBA directly predicted increased risk of verbal and physical MBA perpetration. Greater conformity to specific masculine norms also increased (Power Over Women) and decreased (Emotional Control, Heterosexual Self-Presentation) risk of MBA perpetration. The masculine norms Risk Taking, Playboy, and Emotional Control were found to be indirect predictors of MBA via HED. Risk of MBA perpetration is increased primarily by HED as a direct, but also mediating, predictor. Personal and male peer approval of MBA, and specific masculine norms, further increase this risk whereas other masculine norms appear protective.

Do my peers approve? Interest in injunctive norms feedback delivered online to college student drinkers

Injunctive norms feedback is promising but understudied as a component of college drinking interventions. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate acceptability of injunctive norms feedback delivered to college drinkers via the web. We examined subjective interest in information reflecting peer approval of four sets of drinking behaviors and outcomes, and correlates of interest in the normative feedback. A sample of 221 young adults enrolled in a 2- or 4-year college or university (ages 18–25years; 52% female) completed online surveys in which they were asked to rate their interest in each of 11 injunctive norms statements. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four sets of statements regarding peer approval of (a) intoxicated behaviors, (b) safe drinking strategies, (c) drinking-related consequences, and (d) drinking behaviors of potential partners. All items were framed to reflect disapproval of risky behaviors and approval of protective behaviors. Across norm sets, participants found the items to be moderately interesting and interest ratings did not differ across sets. Higher scores on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), stronger perceived approval of drinking in general (injunctive norms), stronger perceptions of drinking among peers (descriptive norms), and female gender were bivariately correlated with more interest. In a multiple regression, female gender, higher AUDIT (consequence subscale), and stronger general drinking injunctive norms remained significantly associated with interest in the pro-moderation statements. An important future direction is to determine whether the presentation of specific types of injunctive norms feedback can result in downward changes in drinking behavior.

Time-Varying Risk Factors and Sexual Aggression Perpetration Among Male College Students

PurposePreventing sexual aggression (SA) can be informed by determining if time-varying risk factors differentiate men who follow different sexual aggression risk trajectories. MethodsData are from a longitudinal study with 795 college males surveyed at the end of each of their 4 years of college in 2008–2011. Repeated measures general linear models tested if changes in risk factors corresponded with sexual aggression trajectory membership. ResultsChanges in the risk factors corresponded with SA trajectories. Men who came to college with a history of SA but decreased their perpetration likelihood during college showed concurrent decreases in sexual compulsivity, impulsivity, hostile attitudes toward women, rape supportive beliefs, perceptions of peer approval of forced sex, and perceptions of peer pressure to have sex with many different women, and smaller increases in pornography use over their college years. Conversely, men who increased levels of SA over time demonstrated larger increases in risk factors in comparison to other trajectory groups. ConclusionsThe odds that males engaged in sexual aggression corresponded with changes in key risk factors. Risk factors were not static and interventions designed to alter them may lead to changes in sexual aggression risk.

The Role of Perceived Peer Norms in the Relationship Between Media Violence Exposure and Adolescents' Aggression

This study investigates the role of a social context variable, perceived peer norms, in the relationship between media violence exposure and adolescents' aggressive behavior. This was informed by a need to better understand whether, how, and for whom, media violence exposure may affect aggression. Three hypotheses were tested with peer norms as moderator, as mediator, and as both moderator and mediator in the relationship between media violence and aggression. A two-wave longitudinal survey measured media violence exposure, perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and aggressive behavior among 943 adolescents (aged 10–14, 50.4% girls). Results provided support only for the moderated-mediation model. The indirect effect of media violence on aggression via perceived peer approval of aggression (i.e., injunctive norms) was moderated by perceived prevalence of peer aggression (i.e., descriptive norms). Specifically, media violence indirectly increased aggressive behavior for adolescents who perceived more peer aggression, but decreased aggression for adolescents who perceived less peer aggression. Implications for future research into media violence effects are discussed.

Normative misperceptions of tobacco use among university students in seven European countries: Baseline findings of the ‘Social Norms Intervention for the prevention of Polydrug usE’ study

IntroductionResearch conducted in North America suggests that students tend to overestimate tobacco use among their peers. This perceived norm may impact personal tobacco use. It remains unclear how these perceptions influence tobacco use among European students. The two aims were to investigate possible self-other discrepancies regarding personal use and attitudes towards use and to evaluate if perceptions of peer use and peer approval of use are associated with personal use and approval of tobacco use. MethodsThe EU-funded ‘Social Norms Intervention for the prevention of Polydrug usE’ study was conducted in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Slovak Republic, Spain, Turkey and United Kingdom. In total, 4482 students (71% female) answered an online survey including questions on personal and perceived tobacco use and personal and perceived attitudes towards tobacco use. ResultsAcross all countries, the majority of students perceived tobacco use of their peers to be higher than their own use. The perception that the majority (>50%) of peers used tobacco regularly in the past two months was significantly associated with higher odds for personal regular use (OR: 2.66, 95% CI: 1.90–3.73). The perception that the majority of peers approve of tobacco use was significantly associated with higher odds for personal approval of tobacco use (OR: 6.49, 95% CI: 4.54–9.28). ConclusionsPerceived norms are an important predictor of personal tobacco use and attitudes towards use. Interventions addressing perceived norms may be a viable method to change attitudes and tobacco use among European students, and may be a component of future tobacco control policy.

Sex-Related Online Behaviors, Perceived Peer Norms and Adolescents' Experience with Sexual Behavior: Testing an Integrative Model.

Research on the role of sex-related Internet use in adolescents’ sexual development has often isolated the Internet and online behaviors from other, offline influencing factors in adolescents’ lives, such as processes in the peer domain. The aim of this study was to test an integrative model explaining how receptive (i.e., use of sexually explicit Internet material [SEIM]) and interactive (i.e., use of social networking sites [SNS]) sex-related online behaviors interrelate with perceived peer norms in predicting adolescents’ experience with sexual behavior. Structural equation modeling on longitudinal data from 1,132 Dutch adolescents (Mage T1 = 13.95; range 11-17; 52.7% boys) demonstrated concurrent, direct, and indirect effects between sex-related online behaviors, perceived peer norms, and experience with sexual behavior. SEIM use (among boys) and SNS use (among boys and girls) predicted increases in adolescents’ perceptions of peer approval of sexual behavior and/or in their estimates of the numbers of sexually active peers. These perceptions, in turn, predicted increases in adolescents’ level of experience with sexual behavior at the end of the study. Boys’ SNS use also directly predicted increased levels of experience with sexual behavior. These findings highlight the need for multisystemic research and intervention development to promote adolescents’ sexual health.

I get by with a little help from my friends: Examining the peer context of satisfaction with casual sexual relationships and experiences

We examined the role of peers in understanding satisfaction with casual sexual relationships and experiences (CSREs) in young adulthood. Specifically, we examined how perception of peer CSRE engagement, communication with peers about CSREs and peer approval of CSRE engagement were associated with satisfaction both immediately following CSRE engagement and one month after the CSRE occurred. Participants from non-college and college samples completed an online battery of questionnaires at two time points surrounding a high alcohol-consumption event in the USA: Halloween. Path analysis results indicated that peer approval was positively associated with later satisfaction, but only for those in college. Additionally, intentions to communicate with peers were positively associated with satisfaction a month following CSRE, but only for those who engaged in non-penetrative sex. None of the tested associations was qualified by gender.

Cognitive Dissonance and Buyers’ Coping Mechanisms: A Comparative Study of US and Indian Consumers

This study empirically examined difference in the cognitive dissonance resolution behavior of US and Indian consumers. The data was collected through an online survey through the use of convenience and snowball sampling techniques. The use of ANOVA provided the results that indicate that Indian consumers are more cautious and risk-averse in their approach to purchases than US consumers. US consumers demonstrate a higher level of individualistic thinking and are more confident of their choices while Indian consumers have more collectivistic thinking and want peer approval of their choices. US consumers came out to be more aggressive in their post purchase dissonance reducing behavior while Indian consumers appeared to be more willing to compromise with a bad purchase.

Social–Contextual Factors Associated with Alcohol Use among Adolescents of Traditional Alcohol User and Nonuser Ethnic Groups of Nepal

Nepalese society has diverse ethnic groups that can be categorized based on views toward alcohol. In this study, adolescents from the traditional alcohol nonuser (TANU) and traditional alcohol user (TAU) ethnic groups of Nepal are examined for their: (1) alcohol use behavior and (2) social–contextual factors associated with alcohol use. Based on a self-administered questionnaire of adolescents, alcohol use was reported by 19.4% of TANU (N=544) and 40.1% TAU (N=309). Significant variables in a multivariate analysis of ever using alcohol were parental alcohol use, peer alcohol use, perceived parental approval, and perceived peer approval.

Influence of Family and School-Level Factors on Age of Sexual Initiation

PurposeThis study examined the association of individual, family, and school-level characteristics with age of sexual initiation (ASI) and focused specifically on school context as a moderator of known predictors of ASI. MethodsData are from Waves I and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 10,596). Predictors include grade point average, physical development, attitudes about sex, likelihood of higher education, alcohol use, delinquency, family structure, parents' education level, childhood abuse, maternal approval of sex, parental monitoring, and parent–child relationship quality. School-level predictors are averages of adolescents' attitudes about sex and likelihood of higher education and parents' education. Hierarchical linear models run separately by sex were used to predict ASI. ResultsWhen school-level attitudes about sex are more favorable, both boys and girls report younger ASI, and school mean parental education attainment moderates the influence of individual adolescents' attitudes about sex on ASI. More of the predictors are significant for girls than boys, whereas perception of maternal and peer approval of sexual activity are the most salient predictors of younger ASI for boys. ConclusionsResults highlight the importance of school context for understanding adolescents' motivations for early ASI. Findings support the need for school-wide prevention interventions that engage adolescents, peers, and parents in addressing attitudes about early sex.

A Systematic Review of Risk and Protective Factors Associated With Nonmedical Use of Prescription Drugs Among Youth in the United States: A Social Ecological Perspective

Objective: The purpose of this study was to identify the strongest and most consistent risk and protective factors associated with nonmedical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD) in multiple contexts, specifically in community-, school-, interpersonal-, and individual-level domains. Method: A literature search was conducted to review studies published from 2006 to 2012 that examined NMUPD among adolescents. Included were original research studies that focused specifically on risk and protective factors or review articles that included a section on factors associated with NMUPD. Risk and protective factors were included only if a minimum of two methodologically sound research studies reviewed the variable. Results: A variety of risk and protective factors were associated with adolescent NMUPD. At the community level, evidence suggested that ease of access increased the risk of NMUPD. Parental and peer prescription drug use and approval of NMUPD were associated with misuse of prescription drugs within the interpersonal domain. At the school level, academic failure/low educational attainment was associated with high school student NMUPD. However, results for college students’ academic failure and NMUPD were inconclusive. At the individual level, previous use of substances was found to be a significant risk factor for NMUPD, as was adolescent aggressive/delinquent behavior and greater perceived risk or harm of use. Conclusions: NMUPD is a serious concern among adolescents and emerging adults. Several areas exist for prevention efforts within the context of the community, school, interpersonal, and individual domains. Thus, to curb NMUPD, multifaceted approaches are needed that target factors across multiple domains.

A Systematic Review of Risk and Protective Factors Associated With Nonmedical Use of Prescription Drugs Among Youth in the United States: A Social Ecological Perspective

The purpose of this study was to identify the strongest and most consistent risk and protective factors associated with nonmedical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD) in multiple contexts, specifically in community-, school-, interpersonal-, and individual-level domains. A literature search was conducted to review studies published from 2006 to 2012 that examined NMUPD among adolescents. Included were original research studies that focused specifically on risk and protective factors or review articles that included a section on factors associated with NMUPD. Risk and protective factors were included only if a minimum of two methodologically sound research studies reviewed the variable. A variety of risk and protective factors were associated with adolescent NMUPD. At the community level, evidence suggested that ease of access increased the risk of NMUPD. Parental and peer prescription drug use and approval of NMUPD were associated with misuse of prescription drugs within the interpersonal domain. At the school level, academic failure/low educational attainment was associated with high school student NMUPD. However, results for college students' academic failure and NMUPD were inconclusive. At the individual level, previous use of substances was found to be a significant risk factor for NMUPD, as was adolescent aggressive/delinquent behavior and lower [corrected] perceived risk or harm of use. NMUPD is a serious concern among adolescents and emerging adults. Several areas exist for prevention efforts within the context of the community, school, interpersonal, and individual domains. Thus, to curb NMUPD, multifaceted approaches are needed that target factors across multiple domains.

Spatial patterns of adolescent drug use

Adolescent drug use is individually and socially harmful in terms of disrupting adolescent development and social cohesion. Prior research has identified populations at risk and risk factors for adolescent drug use. This research sought to contextualize adolescent drug use by examining this behavior from a geographic perspective. The specific objectives were to identify patterns, local clusters and excess spatial risk for 5-digit zip codes within the 5-county Cincinnati, Ohio region. Adolescents (n = 57,241) were recruited within local schools by the Coalition for a Drug-free Greater Cincinnati. Results of this research show spatial clusters for perceived safety of marijuana; peer approval of alcohol, tobacco and marijuana; and age of onset for other drugs. The location and nature of these clusters are discussed and displayed in-text. Further, zip codes that were in excess risk compared to the 5-county region were identified. The utility of this research is two-fold: (1) It identifies the geographic variability in adolescent drug use and correlated factors of use, and (2) It provides a methodological framework for future research in spatial epidemiology of drug use.

Peer victimization during adolescence: concurrent and prospective impact on symptoms of depression and anxiety

Background: Peer victimization is ubiquitous across schools and cultures, and has the potential for long-lasting effects on the well-being of victims. To date, research has focused on the consequences of peer victimization during childhood but neglected adolescence. Peer relationships and approval become increasingly important during adolescence; thus, peer victimization at this age may have a damaging psychological impact. Methods: Participants were 5030 adolescents aged 11–16 recruited from secondary schools in the UK. Self-report measures of victimization and symptoms of anxiety and depression were administered on three occasions over a 12-month period. Latent growth models examined concurrent and prospective victimization-related elevations in anxiety and depression symptoms above individual-specific growth trajectories. Results: Peer victimization was associated with a concurrent elevation of 0.64 and 0.56 standard deviations in depression and anxiety scores, respectively. There was an independent delayed effect, with additional elevations in depression and anxiety (0.28 and 0.25 standard deviations) six months later. These concurrent and prospective associations were independent of expected symptom trajectories informed by individual risk factors. Conclusions: Adolescent peer victimization was associated with immediate and delayed elevations in anxiety and depression. Early intervention aimed at identifying and supporting victimized adolescents may prevent the development of these disorders.