Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization Research Articles

Validity of the LaFarge equation for estimation of oxygen consumption in ventilated children with congenital heart disease younger than 3 years—A revisit

BackgroundThe LaFarge equation is the most commonly used equation to estimate oxygen consumption (Vo2) in patients of all ages with congenital heart disease, although it was generated in patients older than 3 years. We sought to determine the validity of the LaFarge equation in estimating Vo2 in children younger than 3 years undergoing cardiac catheterization with general anesthesia.MethodsVo2 was measured directly using respiratory mass spectrometry in 75 sedated, paralyzed, and mechanically ventilated children in the pediatric cardiac catheterization laboratory. Age ranged from 0.13 to 24 years; 40 children being younger than 3 years. Estimated values for Vo2 were calculated using the LaFarge equation for all patients. The agreement between measured and estimated Vo2 was evaluated by the bias and limits of agreement in the 2 age groups. Regression analysis was used to analyze the influence of age on the agreement.ResultsA failure of agreement between measured and estimated Vo2 was noted in both groups of children. As compared to the older group of patients, the agreement was significantly poorer in children younger than 3 years, with a significantly greater overestimation introduced by the LaFarge equation (11% ± 21% vs 53% ± 52%, P < .0001).ConclusionThe LaFarge equation introduces significant error in the estimation of Vo2 in ventilated patients with congenital heart disease of all ages, particularly in children younger than 3 years.

Complications of pediatric cardiac catheterization and system of catheterization laboratories minimizing complications—A Japanese multicenter survey

Pediatric cardiac catheterization is sometimes associated with serious complications. However, there are no data regarding the organization of pediatric cardiac catheterization laboratories to minimize complications. The aim of this study was to determine the current organization of pediatric cardiac catheterization laboratories with regard to patient safety in Japan. We sent questionnaires to 105 institutions and obtained data from 82. Major complications requiring surgical therapy or death occurred in 22 institutes (27%). The incidence of major complications did not relate to the number of procedures performed. The procedures were performed without written informed consent in 21% of all institutions. The time to inform about the procedures was within 30 min in 43 institutes (52%). A pre-procedure meeting was held in 56 institutions (68%). The anesthetist attended the diagnostic procedures in 23% and the therapeutic procedures in 53%. The drugs and defibrillator for resuscitation were available in almost all institutions, but a pacemaker was not in 23 institutions (28%). The procedures were performed under the "back-up" of cardiovascular surgeons in 38 institutions (46%). There are still large numbers of institutions in Japan, which need much improvement in the organization of pediatric cardiac catheterization laboratories as an aspect of patient safety.

Point-of-Care Blood Gas Analysis in the Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization Suite

Point-of-Care Blood Gas Analysis in the Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization Suite

Importance of Prevention and Early Intervention of Adverse Events in Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization: A Review of Three Years of Experience

In spite of advances in many noninvasive instruments for studying cardiac anomalies in children, cardiac catheterization (CC) is still an essential method for the precise calculation of cardiovascular hemodynamic status and for performing therapeutic interventions. Accordingly, all adverse events (AE) related to CC are a major concern to pediatric cardiologists. A total of 220 children with congenital heart disease (CHD) who received cardiac catheterization in our tertiary care hospital between the period of January 2000 and December 2002 were studied. One hundred and thirty-eight patients were non-cyanotic CHD, 71 were cyanotic CHD and 11 were complex CHD. Diagnostic CC was performed in 138 patients and therapeutic CC in 82 patients. All AEs that occurred during the CC procedures were identified, recorded and managed at the scene. The severities of AE were further classified into minor, obvious and severe. AEs were observed in 41 patients, including 22 (10%) minor, 16 (7.27%) obvious and 3 (1.36%) severe AEs. The three severe AEs were cardiac tamponade, severe ventricular tachycardia and marked hypoxia-and-bradycardia. None of the patients died. Therapeutic CC did not present a higher incidence of AE occurrence than diagnostic CC. However, a young age (p<0.0001), low body weight (p<0.0001) and cyanotic or complex CHD (p=0.01) appeared to be risk factors for obvious and severe AE. Although the complication of severe AE during CC may not be totally preventable, it is important to be aware of every early sign of AE and to initiate an effective intervention by a well trained resuscitation team.

Radiation Risk From Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the most prevalent and fatal of all birth defects, occurring in nearly 1 in 100 live births.1 Before the advent of cardiac surgery for congenital cardiac malformations, less than one fifth of children born with such lesions reached adulthood. The progress of surgical management and, more recently, interventional catheterization has allowed an increasing number of congenital heart defects to be corrected surgically so that an increasing number of patients reach adolescence and adult life, even those with complex defects.2,3 Article see p 1903 Indeed, grown-up patients with surgically repaired CHD are a large and growing population, estimated to be 1 million in United States in the year 2000 compared with an estimated 300 000 in 1980, and 1.4 million cases are anticipated in 2020.2 Numbers are likely to be similar in the European Union, although no hard figures are available.3 One worrisome social and medical problem in the management of patients with CHD is certainly the long-term effects of intensive medical exposure to ionizing radiation received during childhood, especially for interventional catheterization procedures.4–7 Pediatric cardiac catheterizations are undoubtedly an essential diagnostic and therapeutic tool for the diagnosis and the treatment of CHD; however, they also deliver one of the highest radiation doses to patients.4–7 Ionizing radiation exposure is a definite risk factor for cancer development. Children are especially vulnerable to the oncogenic effects of radiation. Tissues and organs that are growing and developing are more sensitive to radiation effects than those that are fully mature. Moreover, the oncogenic effects of radiation require a long latent period (decades) that varies with the type of malignancy. Thus, an infant or child patient has a longer lifetime risk for developing radiation-induced cancers than adult patients.8 In addition, catheterization procedures are also …

γ-H2AX Foci as a Biomarker for Patient X-Ray Exposure in Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization

A better knowledge of patient x-ray dose and the associated radiation risk in pediatric interventional cardiology is warranted in view of the extensive use of x-rays and the higher radiosensitivity of children. In the present study, gamma-H2AX foci were used as a biomarker for radiation-induced effects. Patient-specific dose was assessed and radiation risks were estimated according to the linear-no-threshold model, commonly used in radiation protection, and the gamma-H2AX foci data. In 49 pediatric patients (median age, 0.75 years) with congenital heart disease who underwent cardiac catheterization procedures, blood samples were taken before and shortly after the procedure. gamma-H2AX foci were determined in peripheral blood T lymphocytes. In each patient, a net increase in gamma-H2AX foci, representing DNA double-strand breaks induced by interventional x-rays, was observed. In addition, a patient-specific Monte Carlo simulation of the procedure was performed, resulting in individual blood, organ, and tissue doses. Plotting of gamma-H2AX foci versus blood dose indicated a low-dose hypersensitivity. Median effective doses calculated according to the International Commission on Radiological Protection 60 and 103 publications are 5.6 and 6.4 mSv, respectively. The lifetime-attributable risk of cancer mortality was calculated from the linear-no-threshold model and the gamma-H2AX foci data. This resulted in lifetime-attributable risk values of 1% and 4%, respectively, for the patient population under study. gamma-H2AX foci as a biomarker for DNA damage indicate that radiation risk estimates according to the linear-no-threshold hypothesis are possibly underestimates. Great care should be taken to minimize and optimize patient radiation exposure.

Experience with the Cardiva Boomerang Catalyst™ system in pediatric cardiac catheterization

We studied the safety and efficacy of the Cardiva Boomerang Catalyst vascular closure system in pediatric patients after cardiac catheterization with access in femoral and internal jugular vessels. Recurrent catheterization and advances in pediatric interventions increase the need for easy hemostasis without a residual foreign body that may prevent re-accessing the vessel. The Boomerang can be deployed in sheaths as small as 4Fr without residual foreign body, with minimal orientation needed, and few complications reported. In a two-month period, all patients between 18 months and 21 years old catheterized with 4-8Fr sheaths less than 15 cm long were eligible for Boomerang placement. These were compared retrospectively with control patients with manual hemostasis. Anthropomorphic measurements, procedure type, activated clotting time, and sheath size as well as total times of cases, intubation, hemostasis, and extubation were compared between the two groups. Forty-six Boomerangs were deployed in 31 patients and compared with 40 patients with manual hemostasis. Boomerangs were deployed in femoral vessels and the internal jugular vein. Device success with hemostasis was achieved in 39 patients (85%). There were no significant differences in time to hemostasis or extubation between the two groups. No major complications or operator error occurred, including hematoma, transfusion, retroperitoneal bleed, infection, vessel occlusion, or need for surgery. The Boomerang is a safe and easy means of achieving hemostasis in the pediatric population, in femoral vessels as well as internal jugular veins. Its times to hemostasis and extubation were not significantly different from manual hold.

Arterial complications associated with cardiac catheterization in pediatric patients with a previous history of kawasaki disease

To determine whether patients with Kawasaki Disease (KD) undergoing percutaneous catheter angiography were at increased risk of arterial complications at the point of arterial access compared to patients with structural heart abnormalities, but normal vessels. Systemic arterial damage can occur as a result of KD. Medical histories of all patients with KD undergoing percutaneous catheter angiography at The Hospital for Sick Children between January 1990 and August 2008 were reviewed. A total of 44 patients with KD underwent 82 catheter procedures. Of these, 3 were associated with important arterial complications (2 males; age: 4 months, 3 and 17 years). All patients who experienced complications had multiple large and/or giant coronary artery aneurysms and two were within 3 months of the acute phase of KD. All patients developed pseudoaneurysms of the femoral artery which had been utilized for catheter access. All pseudoaneurysms were treated with ultrasound-guided thrombin injection and compression, and resolved with no long-term complications. One patient also developed a substantial arteriovenous fistula of the femoral circulation which had to be surgically repaired with no permanent sequela. Odds for arterial complications in patients with KD were 10.4 times greater (95%CI: 3.2-33.8) than that noted for the general pediatric cardiac catheterization population (3.6% vs. 0.4%, P < 0.0001) which indicates higher risk associated with arterial access in patients with KD. Greater care in obtaining arterial access for angiography is warranted, especially in the first month directly following the acute phase, possibly related to systemic arterial damage associated with KD.

Contrast administration in pediatric cardiac catheterization: Dose and adverse events

In pediatrics, contrast-related AE such as allergic reactions, seizures, and nephropathy have been reported to occur after cardiac catheterization, but their incidence remains unknown. We sought to report adverse event (AE) rates attributed to contrast administration in a pediatric cardiac catheterization lab and identify characteristics related to higher doses. A single institution prospective cardiac catheterization AE database identified AE in children <18 years old exposed to contrast. All AE were reviewed and classified by relationship to contrast. Medical records for the 50 cases who received highest contrast doses were retrospectively reviewed for AE. Patient and procedural characteristics were compared in the top quartile of contrast dose versus remaining cases. Over 3 years, 2,321 consecutive cases required median 3.9 cm(3)/kg [IQR: 2.0, 6.0] of contrast. Patients receiving high dose contrast (top quartile) were more likely to be <1 year (51% vs. 24%), weigh <10 kg (66% vs. 29%), have complex 2 ventricle disease (56% vs. 35%), be in a high procedure type risk group (57% vs. 26%), and undergo procedures >2 h (67% vs. 28%), all P < 0.001. Only 2 of 2,321 cases (0.09%, 95% CI 0.01-0.31%) had AE possibly related to contrast. These events were an acute neurological change and transient nephropathy. In 50 cases receiving the most contrast, no AE were attributed to contrast. A large volume pediatric cardiac catheterization lab administered >or= 6 cm(3)/kg of contrast in a quarter of cases; however, AE related to contrast exposure were exceedingly rare.

Patency of Internal Jugular Vein Following Repair after ECMO Stabilization Prior to Berlin Heart Implantation: Utility of Repaired Vein for Subsequent Cardiac Catheterization and Biopsy

The objective of this study was to examine the patency and utility for subsequent vascular access of the internal jugular vein following use in short-term extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Retrospective review. Pediatric cardiac intensive care unit, pediatric cardiac catheterization laboratory, and pediatric cardiac clinic. Four children, ages 7-178 months, requiring mechanical circulatory support. Interventions. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support, internal jugular vein repair, Berlin Heart mechanical circulatory support, heart transplantation, cardiac catheterization. Following surgical repair, the internal jugular vein was studied with bedside ultrasound for assessment of patency. When appropriate, subsequent vascular access of the vessel was attempted and the success was reported. Follow-up ultrasound examination demonstrated vessel patency in all cases. In patients requiring subsequent catheterization (3/4), successful vessel entry and catheterization were performed. Repair of the internal jugular vein following use for short-term extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support can be accomplished with success. The vessel can be used for subsequent vascular access when necessary.

The successful use of alternative routes of vascular access for performing pediatric interventional cardiac catheterization

The objective of this study is to examine the safety/efficacy of alternative routes of vascular access (ARVA) for successful performance of interventions. Complex interventional catheterizations may be required in children with limited vascular access, vascular constraints relative to size, and hemodynamic instability. Our approach has been to utilize ARVA in selected cases. ARVA pertains to any vessel excluding femoral, jugular/subclavian veins, or umbilical access. A retrospective review performed on patients with an intervention utilizing ARVA between August 1995 and January 2004 was performed. Patients were divided by clinical status: critically ill/emergent (A), elective cases (B). Procedural success was based on previously published criteria. Sixty-four interventions were performed in 50 patients using 54 ARVA. ARVA utilized: radial (1), axillary (2), brachial (2), carotid arteries (25); brachial (2) hepatic (9) veins; and open chest/direct cardiac puncture (13). ARVA provided successful access to target lesions. Interventions included stents (30), valvuloplasty (16), angioplasty (14), and one each of vascular occlusion, septal occlusion, accessory pathway ablation, and septostomy. Group A patients were smaller (P < 0.0002) and younger (P < 0.004) than B. All open chest/direct cardiac and the majority (71%) of carotid arterial approaches were performed in group A. Fifty-six (88%) inteventions were successful with no difference between groups A (88%) and B (86%). There were two complications. Neither resulted in long-term sequelae. ARVA may provide a strategic advantage that may be safely applied to a variety of interventions regardless of patient size or degree of illness. These techniques may further extend the scope of successful interventions in children.

A Risk Adjusted Method for Comparing Adverse Outcomes among Practitioners in Pediatric and Congenital Cardiac Catheterization

We sought to develop a method to adjust for case mix diversity and allow comparison of adverse outcome rates among practitioners in pediatric and congenital cardiac catheterization. A single institutional database that captured demographic and procedural data was used to identify patient and procedural characteristics associated with adverse events (AE) and any high severity event classified as preventable or possibly preventable (P/PP). Diagnostic and procedural risk groups were created and indicators of hemodynamic vulnerability were defined. Expected event rates by the practitioners adjusting for case mix were calculated. Standardized adverse event ratios (SAER), defined as the observed rate divided by the expected rate for each practitioner were calculated with 95% confidence intervals. The database included 1727 hemodynamic (30%) and interventional (70%) cases performed by seven practitioners in 18 months. During 147 cases, at least one P/PP AE occurred; among the seven practitioners observed, event rates ranged from 3.2 to 14.2%. In multivariable analysis, risk factors for all P/PP events included highest procedure risk group (odds ratio [OR] 2.1 for group 2, and 2.8 for group 3, relative to group 1, P = .001 and P < .001, respectively) and weight less than 4 kg (OR 2.8, P < .001). High severity P/PP events occurred in 67 cases with rates ranging from 2.0 to 6.6% by the practitioners. For these events, risk factors included: highest procedure risk group (OR 4.5 for group 2, and 4.9 for group 3, both P < .001) and an indicator of hemodynamic vulnerability (OR 1.8, P = .026). For the seven practitioners, the SAER ranged from 0.41 to 1.32 for any P/PP AE and from 0.69 to 1.44 for P/PP high severity events. In this cohort, we did not identify any statistically significant performance differences. Despite wide variations in case mix complexity in pediatric and congenital cardiac catheterization, this study demonstrates a method for risk adjustment which allows equitable comparisons among practitioners at a single institution.

Complications of pediatric cardiac catheterization: A review in the current era

To determine types of complications and risks associated with pediatric cardiac catheterization in the current era. Pediatric cardiac catheterization is an important diagnostic and therapeutic tool. Although in the last decade, there have been significant improvements in technology and equipment, the risk for complications remains, adversely effecting outcomes. The clinical records of 11,073 children undergoing cardiac catheterizations between January 1994 and March 2006 were reviewed to identify procedures associated with complications within the first 24 h after catheterization. All children's electronic and paper chart records were reviewed to obtain demographic, procedural, and treatment data. A total of 858 (7.3%) complications (classified as major or minor) occurred in 816 studies (510 males, 63%), in children ranging in age from 8 h to 20 years (median 4.13 years). There were 195 major (22%) and 663 (78%) minor complications. Vascular complications represented the majority (n = 278; 32.4%) and were major in 53 instances (P < 0.0001). Twenty-five children died within 24 h (0.23% of total case numbers). Independent risk factors for a complication included young patient age (<6 months), male gender, inpatient status, and year of catheterization. Complications continue to be associated with pediatric cardiac catheterization, although overall incidence appears to be decreasing. Patient age, gender, and inpatient status continue to be risk factors for morbidity and mortality. Efforts at improving equipment for flexibility and size, and developing strategies for the use of alternative methods for catheter access should be encouraged.

Radiation dose survey in a paediatric cardiac catheterisation laboratory equipped with flat-panel detectors

Flat-panel X-ray detectors for fluoroscopy represent a modern imaging equipment that is being implemented in paediatric cardiac catheterisation laboratories. Infants and children represent a group of patients with a high radiosensitivity. A survey of 273 (126 diagnostic and 147 therapeutic) paediatric catheterisations was performed to investigate the radiation doses delivered by the new X-ray system. Statistical parameters (75th, 50th and 25th percentiles) of dose-area product (DAP) and fluoroscopy time are reported for patients divided into six age groups: 0-30 d, >1-12 m, >1-3, >3-5, >5-10 and >10-15 y. For accurate risk estimation, effective dose (E) has been determined for all patients using the PCXMC software. For diagnostic procedures, the third quartile of E ranges from 11.3 mSv for newborns to 7 mSv for children of 10-15 y. Therapeutic procedures are more complex than diagnostic. Consequently, the third quartile of E is 22.6 mSv (0-30 d), 18.6 (>1-12 m), 13.3 (>1-3 y), 21.5 (>3-5 y), 17.8 (>5-10 y) and 34.1 mSv (>10-15 y). Dose conversion factors, which relate the DAP and E, have been estimated for each age group. The results of this study may serve as a first step in the optimisation process, in order to make full use of the dose reduction potential of flat-panel systems.

Variation in radiation doses in paediatric cardiac catheterisation procedures

Paediatric cardiac catheterisation involves diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that range from simple to complex and can subject paediatric patients to varying radiation doses. The study aims to determine the variation in entrance doses in patients in terms of dose-area product (DAP) values and to investigate the methods for optimising radiation protection. A total of 190 paediatric patients belonging to age groups 0, 1, 5 and 10 y who underwent diagnostic and six selected therapeutic procedures at King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia were included in the study. Therapeutic procedures include coarctation (COA), patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), radiofrequency ablation, pulmonary, embolisation and septostomy. Fluoroscopy and cine radiography were used in all procedures. Patient demography (weight, age, gender and height), radiographic technique factors, fluoroscopy and cine time, frame rate, and DAP values were taken from patients records. Effective doses for each procedure were estimated from the DAP values. The mean DAP per procedure were analysed for correlation with patient equivalent cylindrical diameter, weight, fluoroscopy time and number of frames. Factors influencing the variation in doses were investigated. Initial results show that PDA occlusion has the highest mean DAP value of 23.21 Gy-cm2, while the diagnostic and septostomy procedures have the lowest value of 7.77 and 6.95 Gy-cm2, respectively.

Can analysis of the bispectral index prove helpful when monitoring titration of doses of midazolam and ketamine for sedation during paediatric cardiac catheterization

We investigated the use of the bispectral index for monitoring sedation during cardiac catheterization. The scores for the bispectral index may not reflect correct values in children, but may be helpful during titration of sedatives such as midazolam and ketamine. We conducted a prospective randomized clinical trial in 126 patients scheduled for cardiac catheterization in a teaching hospital. They ranged in age from 4 months to 15 years. In 66 patients, sedation was performed without use of the bispectral index, while the index was used in the other 60 patients. The data collected included heart rate, mean arterial pressure, respiratory rate, saturation of oxygen, amount of sedatives, awakening time and adverse effects. We subdivided the patients into age-related groups for each parameter. The demographic data were not statistically different. Monitoring with the bispectral index in those aged from 1 to 3 years revealed use of lower doses of midazolam, at 2.09 mg per kg per hr, with standard deviation of 0.36, and similarly lowers doses of ketamine, at 2.07 mg per kg per hr, with standard deviation of 0.22, the values in those not monitored being 2.93, with standard deviation of 0.45, and 2.96 with standard deviation of 0.51 respectively, these difference being statistically significant (p = 0.001 and p = 0.04, respectively). In those aged from 3 to 6 years of age, dosage of midazolam was 2.09, with deviation of 0.36, and of ketamine 1.78, with deviation of 0.27, following use of the bispectral index, compared to 2.89 with deviation of 0.28, and 2.62 with deviation of 0.69 respectively, when the bispectral index was not used, these again being significant differences (p = 0.033 and p = 0.04). The requirements for respiratory support and adverse effects were also significantly lower when using the bispectral index (p less than 0.05). No significant difference was found regarding dosages at the ages of 4 months to 1 year, and 6 to 15 years. The awakening time, however, was shorter with use of the index in those aged from 1 to 6 years. When using the bispectral index for monitoring sedation during catheterization in children, we noted decreased need for doses of midazolam and ketamine, a lower need for respiratory support and less adverse effects.

Ultrasound-Guided Versus Landmark-Guided Femoral Vein Access in Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization

This study aimed to evaluate whether an ultrasound-guided technique can improve upon a landmark-guided technique in achieving femoral vein access in pediatric cardiac catheterization. This study examined 87 consecutive subjects with a median age of 2 years (range, 1 month to 19 years) who had congenital or other heart disease. Femoral vein puncture was attempted using either an ultrasound-guided technique (US group, n = 43) or a landmark-guided technique (LM group, n = 44). The patients were assigned alternately to either an ultrasound- or landmark-guided group. Overall success and traumatic complication rates were compared between the two groups, as well as the influence of patient size and age. The overall rate of success in achieving femoral vein access did not differ between the two groups. Among the successful cases in the two groups, there were no significant differences in patient size or age. Inadvertent femoral artery puncture occurred with 3 (7%) of 43 patients in the US group and with 14 (31.8%) of 44 patients in the LM group, for a significantly higher complication rate in the LM group (p < 0.01). Ultrasound-guided access to the femoral vein minimizes the complication of inadvertent arterial puncture as compared with the landmark-guided approach.

Successful Femoral Vessel Puncture Facilitated by Using a J-Tipped Hydrophilic Guidewire in Pediatric Cardiac Catheterization

Vascular access is an important part of cardiac catheterization, but it is extremely difficult in some cases. We present two cases in which a J-tipped hydrophilic guidewire inserted from the contralateral vessel facilitated successful vascular access after initial access failure by conventional method using anatomical landmark.

Patient doses from fluoroscopically guided cardiac procedures in pediatrics

Infants and children are a higher risk population for radiation cancer induction compared to adults. Although some values on pediatric patient doses for cardiac procedures have been reported, data to determine reference levels are scarce, especially when compared to those available for adults in diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. The aim of this study is to make a new contribution to the scarce published data in pediatric cardiac procedures and help in the determination of future dose reference levels. This paper presents a set of patient dose values, in terms of air kerma area product (KAP) and entrance surface air kerma (ESAK), measured in a pediatric cardiac catheterization laboratory equipped with a biplane x-ray system with dynamic flat panel detectors. Cardiologists were properly trained in radiation protection. The study includes 137 patients aged between 10 days and 16 years who underwent diagnostic catheterizations or therapeutic procedures. Demographic data and technical details of the procedures were also gathered. The x-ray system was submitted to a quality control programme, including the calibration of the transmission ionization chamber. The age distribution of the patients was 47 for <1 year; 52 for 1–<5 years; 25 for 5–<10 years and 13 for 10–<16 years. Median values of KAP were 1.9, 2.9, 4.5 and 15.4 Gy cm2 respectively for the four age bands. These KAP values increase by a factor of 8 when moving through the four age bands. The probability of a fatal cancer per fluoroscopically guided cardiac procedure is about 0.07%. Median values of ESAK for the four age bands were 46, 50, 56 and 163 mGy, which lie far below the threshold for deterministic effects on the skin. These dose values are lower than those published in previous papers.

Congenitally persistent left superior vena cava: a possible unpleasant problem during invasive procedures

The persistence of the left superior vena cava is the most common thoracic vein anomaly, but, nevertheless, it continues to be an unpleasant finding during invasive diagnostic cardiovascular procedures and is sometimes a challenge during invasive therapeutic interventions. Persistent left superior vena cava usually occurs in 0.5% of the normal population and 0.47% of patients undergoing pacemaker or implantable cardioverter defibrillator implantation. The incidence in congenital heart disease varies (2-5%), and it is more frequent in stenosis or pulmonary atresia, D-transposition, complete atrioventricular septal defects, and anomalous pulmonary vein drainage. The diagnosis is almost always incidental, during anaesthesiological procedures such as central vein placement, or diagnostic cardiovascular procedures, such as right heart catheterization, but it may sometimes be discovered during therapeutic paediatric cardiac catheterization, such as during patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect transcatheter closure. Echocardiography is useful to identify patients in whom computed tomography and especially magnetic resonance imaging may pose a definitive diagnosis. In indicated cases, when cyanosis is present and the anomaly is isolated, treatment options include surgical ligation and transcatheter closure using large occluder devices, whereas more challenging surgical repairs are needed when the anomaly is associated with other complex congenital heart diseases. Different specialists at different levels such as anaesthesiologists, invasive cardiologists, electrophysiologists and cardiac surgeons should be aware of the variety of technical problems that may be caused by a persistent LSVC.