Pecking Behavior Research Articles

The development of feather pecking and cannibalism in chicks

Feather pecking and cannibalism are both frequently found in hens kept under intensive farming conditions. Until recently investigations into their cause, or causes, have involved manipulating the environment and then measuring the amount of feather damage that followed. Little work so far has involved observations on the actual feather pecking behaviour itself. The experiments reported here were aimed at rectifying this. Observations on small groups of chicks showed that not all birds gave or received pecks to the same extent, and that there were three possible “types” of bird; peckers, pecked and neutral. It was found that if birds were identified early in life as peckers or pecked they maintained these characteristics when reared in groups of similarly classified birds. This difference was found to last until at least point of lay, twenty-one weeks. Birds which were peckers also differed from pecked birds physically in that they were smaller; behaviourally in that they pecked more at cagemates and less at the environment and reproductively in that they came into lay later. It was suggested that differences in hormone levels might account for the difference in pecking behaviour since the peckers had several characteristics of high testosterone birds. An explanation of this type would account for the differences between batches of birds from the same strain, and within batches too, since hormone levels vary during development. It would appear that feather pecking does not develop gradually over time but is apparent early in life and although it may be responsive to changes in the external environment it is not dependent on the environment for its appearance.

Temporal effects of mirror-image stimulation on pecking and peeping in isolate, pair- and group-reared domestic chicks

The pecking and peeping behavior of isolate, pair- and group-reared chicks tested singly with and without mirrors were studied during 2-hr tests. Results supported the hypothesis that the social facilitation of pecking is disrupted by test novelty (discrepancy between testing and rearing conditions). Mirror exposure resulted in the greatest enhancement of pecking and least peeping in pair-reared chicks and in more moderate pecking increases and more peeping in group-reared chicks. Isolates initially avoided mirrors but after an hour peeped less and showed a social facilitation of pecking.

An Analysis of the Temporal Patterning of Pecking in Chicks

An Analysis of the Temporal Patterning of Pecking in Chicks

A comparison of the behaviour and production of laying hens in experimental and conventional battery cages

There is some experimental evidence that the behaviour of laying hens in conventional battery cages is restricted. The absence of litter in particular may account in part for the higher level of feather pecking in cages as opposed to pens, and for the tendency of one strain to develop stereotyped pacing, indicative of frustration, in the pre-laying period. In the present small-scale study an experimental cage was tested for its effects on the behaviour, production, and feather and foot damage of groups of six birds per cage. The experimental cages, when compared with conventional types, had an horizontal floor, were extended in height, had food and water provided at two levels, two perches and nesting boxes containing litter. Egg collection was automated; eggs and litter travelled to a collecting point and the litter was recycled to the cages. Forty-eight birds of a White Leghorn laying strain (Shaver 288) were housed at six per cage in a bank of experimental cages. Forty-eight sister birds were grouped in sixes in conventional caging for comparison. Details are given of the space allowances in each cage on various criteria, since a simple floor area comparison was not relevant. Observations lasted over a 6-month period from point-of-lay. The experimentally caged birds laid nearly all their eggs in the nest boxes, and showed more movement, reflex activity, preening and sitting but less feeding, drinking, pecking, pushing and stereotyped behaviour. The specific variables causing these behavioural differences are speculated upon, although in this type of study they cannot be identified with certainty. The experimental birds showed less feather and foot damage compared with controls in conventional cages. Egg production in the two groups was similar but samples of eggs from the experimental cages were of a higher mean weight. As yet no economic assessment of the viability of the experimental cage has been undertaken, but reference is made to comparable studies where this has been attempted. On welfare grounds there is some evidence that the experimental cage is nearer to the criteria of an “ideal” cage (Hughes, 1973) than conventional cages.

Similarity of approach and pecking preferences for spectral stimuli in domestic chicks: absence of a mirror-image relation.

The results of Schaefer and Hess showing that White Rock chicks described mirror-image response functions to spectral stimuli in approach and pecking behavior could not be replicated using Cornish-Cross chicks under more controlled conditions. Our results showed similar blue-orange bimodal functions for both behavioral responses, resembling the approach data of Schaefer and Hess and the earlier pecking data of Hess and others, but not the pecking data reported by Schaefer and Hess.

PERSISTENCE OF ACQUIRED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL IN THE CONTEXT OF IMPRINTING1

Newly hatched Khaki Campbell ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) were exposed to a moving object that immediately suppressed distress vocalizations occurring in a novel environment. The static visual and auditory features of this object acquired the ability to suppress distress vocalizations after eight 20-min sessions of exposure to the object in motion. The acquired suppressive properties of these features were found to persist throughout thirty 20-min sessions given over 10 days. During these sessions, the ducklings were continually exposed to the static features in the absence of visual movement. In a second experiment, the ability of these features in the absence of visual movement. In a second experiment, the ability of these features to serve as reinforcement for a pecking response was shown to persist for up to 56 hr. In one duckling, presentations of the static visual features did not maintain pecking behavior. However, it was shown that pecking responses could be re-instated in this duckling by introducing novel stimuli to the environment.

"Irrelevant" ground pecking in agonistic situations in Burmese red junglefowl (Gallus gallus Spadiceus).

"Irrelevant" ground pecking in agonistic situations in Burmese red junglefowl (Gallus gallus Spadiceus).

The effect of intrahypothalamic administration of sodium pentobarbital on eating behaviour and feed intake in chickens

Injection of sodium pentobarbital solutions were carried out in chickens, through permanently implanted cannulas in the brain. Chickens with cannulas implanted in the third ventricle, above the hypothalamic ventromedial area, responded with immediate increase in feed intake and vigorous pecking behaviour which lasted from 10–60 min. Chickens with cannulas implanted in the posterior lateral hypothalamus showed no changes in their feed intake or eating behaviour after sodium pentobarbital injection. The results with chickens correspond to those obtained with rats, cats and dogs.

Centrifugal control of the avian retina. V. Effects of lesions of the isthmo-optic nucleus on visual behaviour

Observations were made on the pecking behaviour of domestic chicks with electrolytic lesions of the isthmo-optic nuclei. Food-deprived, lesioned birds directed a higher proportion of their pecks at non-food objects than sham-operated controls and also showed an abnormal tendency to persistently peck at food grains with the beak closed. Lesioned birds also responded less readily to a novel object introduced into their posterior visual field than did controls. When tested on a food grain vs. pebble discrimination on a floor illuminated with a checkerboard pattern of light and dark, lesioned birds were almost as good as controls in the light areas but performed close to chance levels in the dark areas. These findings are consistent with earlier proposals that the centrifugal innervation to the avian retina may assist in the early detection of targets and aid visual search in shadowed areas.

Irrelevant stimuli and response rate for a pigeon

The purpose of the first experiment was to train three pigeons to ignore a novel irrelevant stimulus or distractor. It was found that the distractor would interrupt ongoing pecking behavior in pigeons. It was also found that after many presentations of the distractor, its interrupting effect ceased and the pecking rate returned to its predistraction level. In addition, it was found that generalization of the habituation-training effect occurred to stimuli similar to the distractor. The habituated stimulus also had no distracting effect on responding to a subsequently established discriminative stimulus.

Auto-Shaping: A Three Key Technique

Three pigeons were given key peck training with a three key auto-shaping technique. The new procedure eliminates successive approximation shaping and presence of the experimenter. Results indicated all Ss rapidly acquire the initial pecking behavior and readily transfer it to a new discrimination on the first trial.

Ingestive Behavior of Day-Old Chicks

Although the common husbandry practice is to have both feed and water available when chicks are placed in the pen, they may be presented either successively (at different times) or simultaneously (in the form of a choice). Dawkins (1968 Dawkins (1969) has discussed the theory of these procedures on the pecking and ingestive behavior of chicks. This note includes findings from preliminary trials on the ingestive behavior of day-old clicks that may have application to husbandry practices.Meat-type chicks were hatched individually and maintained in visual isolation without food or water until testing at 24 ± 6 hours posthatching. Testing was in a 21×28 cm. compartment with shavings on the floor and brown walls that were 15 cm. high. The temperature of the room was maintained at approximately 34°C. Food and water were supplied in identical containers which were opaque white cups 5.7 cm. in diameter and 5.7 cm. high. When.

Innate visual form preferences in the pecking behavior of young chicks.

Abstract1. Young chicks from the age of 1 to 91/2 days were tested daily for unrewarded two-dimensional form preferences in pecking behavior. 2. Forms having a 049 square inch area were found to be preferred, from high to low, as follows: serrated circle, oval, circle, hexagon, star, pentagon, square, rectangle, and diamond. 3. Chicks that were shown the same forms in a smaller size, .012 square inches in area, preferred them in the same order except that star shifted to last place. The smaller forms elicited a higher level of pecking behavior than did the large ones. 4. There were found increases in pecking behavior as a function of age up to the age of 5 days, after which there was a plateau. Up to (but not including) and after the age of 6-61/2 days the order of preferences for the forms was the same. 5. The disruption of the preference hierarchy at the age of 6-61/2 days is discussed in relation to the food imprinting that HESS (1962, 1964) has demonstrated to occur in chicks.

Innate visual form preferences in the imprinting behavior of hatchling chicks.

Abstract 1. Dark-reared socially naive hatchling chicks 13 to 16 hours old were exposed to one of ten two-dimensional forms in an imprinting procedure. Two different imprinting procedures were used. 2. The relative effectiveness of the ten forms, from high to low, in eliciting affiliative behavior was as follows: square, pentagon, oval, diamond, triangle, serrated circle, star, rectangle, circle, and hexagon. 3. These preferences were compared with the pecking preferences found for the same shapes that have been previously reported by GOODWIN & HESS (190). 4. A comparison of affiliative and pecking behavior was made.

Development of pecking behavior in chicks: Recovery after deprivation.

Development of pecking behavior in chicks: Recovery after deprivation.

Stimulus Generalization and Responses To "Supernormal" Stimuli in the Unrewarded Pecking Behavior of Young Chicks

Abstract 1. Young chicks were tested daily from the age of one to nine days for unrewarded pecking preferences. 2. Those tested on stars differing in number of points pecked the most at stars having 3 or 9 points and showed a decreasing preference for intermediate stars with the 7-pointed star pecked at the least. Preference for different stars appears to be influenced by size. 3. There was a failure to obtain classical stimulus generalization effects in the groups shown a series of diamonds or a series of ovals. 4. Preference rankings for "supernormal" stimuli consisting of circles edged in different ways suggested that the preference hierarchy for two-dimensional forms may be very different when the forms are in extremely tiny size.

THE PECKING RESPONSE OF YOUNG ARCTIC TERNS STERNA MACRURA AND THE ADAPTTVENESS OF THE “RELEASING MECHANISM”

SummaryExperiments were made using models to analyse the stimuli evoking the pecking behaviour of young Arctic Terns, with comparative tests on Herring Gulls in one year. Some of the findings for the Arctic Tern may be summarized as follows. The chicks pecked at red, blue and silver more than at orange, yellow, green, black and white, and the response was increased by adding a contrasting spot to a beak. A plain red beak, the natural colour in the breeding season, was pecked less than one tipped with black, the colour in the winter. Chicks responded more to the beak models when a “fish” was attached (Fig. 1). Under natural conditions the chicks swallow their food, chiefly the sandeel Ammodytes, head first, and this is facilitated by the chicks pecking more at the head than the tail end of the fish. The stimuli by which head and tail are distinguished were found to be the pattern of the eye and tail‐fin rather than the shape of head and tail.The view that the selectiveness of the tern chicks is adapted specifically to the feeding situation is discussed critically, using the comparative results from the Herring Gull tests, and it is argued that while this is not the case for some of the stimuli effective in evoking the pecking (e.g. movement), whose adaptive significance concerns the general efficiency of the eye, it could well be responsible for some of the selectiveness found (e.g. high response to blue, low response to tail‐fin patterns). Comparison of the two species suggests that the Arctic Tern is specially adapted to respond to fish‐like objects attached to the beak. In the Herring Gull the ability to distinguish the head and tail of a fish appears to anticipate the time when the chick requires it.

Central Aromatic Amine Levels and Behavior

Introduction There have been numerous investigations linking some of the better known central aromatic amines with the actions of various types of psychoactive drugs. Seldom, however, have objective behavioral data and detailed chemical measurements been carried out in the same laboratory. Aprison and Ferster 1 attempted to correlate brain monoamine oxidase activity with pecking behavior in pigeons, and Weissman and Finger 2 studied the effect of benzquinamide on both conditioned avoidance behavior and brain amine levels in rats and monkeys. Often in correlative drug-behavior studies, such as these, only one central amine has been measured. It may well be that the balance between the amines rather than the absolute level of any one amine is the more important to behavior. In order to provide more precise information regarding central amine levels and behavior, we undertook the measurement of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in 16 brain areas from cats treated with

Some observations on pecking in pigeons.

An attempt was made to analyse the pecking behaviour in pigeons induced by apomorphine. The pecking was completely suppressed by tranquillizers, barbiturates and cortisone. It was intensified by histamine, nicotine, lobeline, testosterone, progesterone and sodium taurocholate. None of the drugs tested could induce in pigeons pecking typical of apomorphine. Apomorphine induced pecking in other birds too. It was concluded that the pecking phenomenon after apomorphine is similar to the natural feeding movements performed by pigeons while eating grains and possibly it is the function of a specialized area in the limbic system of the brain which is stimulated by apomorphine.

On Instinct-Satiation: An Experiment on the Pecking Behavior of Chickens

On Instinct-Satiation: An Experiment on the Pecking Behavior of Chickens