Peatland Research Articles

Nature-based climate solutions require a mix of socioeconomic and governance attributes.

Nature-based climate solutions (NCS) can play a crucial role in reducing climate change. There is, however, a lack of understanding of the biophysical, social, and political contexts surrounding NCS, which hampers its practical implementation. Here, we used estimates of carbon sink potential to identify socioeconomic and ecological factors that may stimulate NCS implementation in developing economies. We considered carbon sink potential for eight NCS, including reforestation, peatland restoration, natural forest management, improved rice cultivation, optimal grazing intensity, grazing (legumes), avoided peatland impacts, and avoided coastal impacts. Food insecurity hotspots, which currently receive the most development aid, have the lowest likelihood of realizing NCS' potential. Poor governance structures and food insecurity impede the implementation of NCS projects at the country level. By carefully assessing complementary food security, sustainable financing, and soil quality safeguards, NCS as a nationally determined contribution to climate mitigation can be made more effective.

Development of agroforestry products in supporting peatland restoration and food security: A lesson from South Sumatra, Indonesia

The agroforestry system has been widely presented as a model for land management to restore ecosystem function and, at the same time, increase people’s income. The land cultivation system by combining forestry plants with agricultural crops is expected to attract people’s interest to adopt and carry out planting on a wider scale. This paper aims to examine the development of agroforestry products in supporting peatland restoration and food security, as a lesson learned from South Sumatra. Field observation and stakeholder interviews were conducted to collect data to be analyzed descriptively. The result revealed that a relatively adaptive forestry plant that was developed on peatlands could produce timber and non-timber forest products. The community developed agroforestry system as their source on income and at the same tima can support peatland restoration. Unfortunately, the market of a certain product is currently unavailable. In addition, for other types of crops, the price will drop during the harvest season, making them less profitable. Therefore, diversification of products is needed as a solution for the community. In the future, the types of plants that are developed on peatlands must have prospective market access to benefit the community and improve the welfare of the people.

Creating Peatland Restoration Policy for Supporting in Indonesian Economic in a Sustainable Way

As large tracts of degraded peatlands are caused by conversion and fires, peat restoration is carried out to restore peat ecosystems to their natural condition and support the socioeconomics of communities around peatlands that are affected because they depend on the resources provided by peatlands as livelihoods. This study aims to see the implementation of peat restoration in the Rewetting, Revegetation, and Revitalization (3R) approach in Jambi Province. The research focuses on the economic revitalization of people’s livelihoods. This research method is exploratory qualitative, while data collection is through interviews, observations, documentation, and literature: data analysis techniques, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. The results of research on the implementation of peat restoration in Jambi Province have been carried out since 2018; the implementation of the 3R has not been optimal, which is still far from the target set. In particular, assistance for the economic revitalization of people’s livelihoods lacks help, so the program’s sustainability is stopped halfway. In addition, the collaboration and coordination of the Regional Peat Restoration Team (TRGD) agencies did not go well.

Paludiculture: Peatland utilization for food security

Degraded tropical peatland in Indonesia has been restored since 2016 through 3R efforts including rewetting, revegetation, and revitalization of local livelihood. Many studies concluded that the involvement of the local community is the key to the success of peatland restoration. The restoration that touches the local community’s livelihood will be well accepted and adopted. Paludiculture is cultivation in wetlands. It is an alternative to peatland utilization without drainage. This paper presents challenges and opportunities in the establishment and development of paludiculture and at the same time presents paludiculture species that have been developed in Central Kalimantan province to support food security. A survey on food-producing paludiculture species was carried out in semi-structured interviews and field observation in Central Kalimantan. The results showed that the presence of food-producing paludiculture species was very limited. Lack of information and knowledge on local peatland species, lack of seed sources and inappropriate rewetting techniques were challenges that are being faced in the development of paludiculture.

Pineapple genetic diversity in Riau peat land assessed by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker

Riau is one of the centers for pineapple production in Indonesia and harbored many local cultivar that have been cultivated for generations. The purpose of this study was to investigate the genetic diversity and genetic similarity between local cultivar in Riau based on RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA) markers. Diversity analysis was carried out on ten local pineapple cultivar from five districts, namely Kampar, Indragiri Hilir, Siak, Bengkalis, and Dumai, using 11 RAPD primers. The PCR amplification result of the 11 RAPD primers selected generated a total 77 loci and the percentage of polymorphic loci was 96.42%. The high value of percentage of polymorphic loci reflected high diversity of pineapple in Riau propince. The values of genetic similarity coefficient of the pineapple genotypes in Riau Province ranged from 53% to 91%. The UPGMA dendrogram displayed that the Queen and Smooth Cayenne cultivars were separated in different cluster, while the Gemilang cultivar (GT) was placed between the Smooth Cayenne and Queen groups. This finding confirmed that Gemilang cultivar was the result of the natural crossing pollination between Smooth Cayenne and Queen pineapple.

Building knowledge management for better policy and strategy of peatland restoration in Indonesia: inputs from stakeholders

Tropical peatland in Indonesia experiences massive degradation due to the high pressures of anthropogenic ventures that triggered the disaster, which calls for peatland restoration. This restoration requires comprehensive knowledge in designing and transforming appropriate policy and has become a challenging part of peatland restoration. This research discusses the insights from stakeholders concerning knowledge management to support the policy and strategy of Indonesia’s peatland restoration. The survey was conducted on 72 respondents. Most of the respondents (95.8%) know about the existing tropical peatland in Indonesia. Respondents also elaborated on various sources of peatland knowledge through (1) online scientific search engine; (2) discussion and interview; (3) workshop and conference; (4) observation and experience. We found that 81.9% of respondents have a basic understanding of knowledge management, and 94.4% of respondents agree on the role of social media in knowledge management. Respondents highlighted some points for building knowledge management, including sharing knowledge mechanisms, exploring local knowledge, organizing knowledge, and building an informative platform. Collaboration work is the key in the digital era for this context. Utilizing social media would be an attractive package to shape the policy and strategy in raising public awareness, building networks, and improving sharing knowledge mechanisms.

Natural climate solutions in Indonesia: wetlands are the key to achieve Indonesia’s national climate commitment

Indonesia offers a dramatic opportunity to contribute to tackling climate change by deploying natural climate solutions (NCS), increasing carbon sequestration and storage through the protection, improved management, and restoration of drylands, peatlands, and mangrove ecosystems. Here, we estimate Indonesia’s NCS mitigation opportunity for the first time using national datasets. We calculated the maximum NCS mitigation potential extent using datasets of annual national land cover, peat soil, and critical lands. We collated a national emissions factor database for each pathway, calculated from a meta-analysis, recent publications from our team, and available literature. The maximum NCS mitigation potential in 2030 is 1.3 ± 0.04 GtCO2e yr−1, based on the historical baseline period from 2009–2019. This maximum NCS potential is double Indonesia’s nationally determined contribution (NDC) target from the forestry and other land use sector. Of this potential opportunity, 77% comes from wetland ecosystems. Peatlands have the largest NCS mitigation potential (960 ± 15.4 MtCO2e yr−1 or 71.5 MgCO2e ha−1 yr−1) among all other ecosystems. Mangroves provide a smaller total potential (41.1 ± 1.4 MtCO2e yr−1) but have a much higher mitigation density (12.2 MgCO2e ha−1 yr−1) compared to dryland ecosystems (2.9 MgCO2e ha−1 yr−1). Therefore, protecting, managing, and restoring Indonesia’s wetlands is key to achieving the country’s emissions reduction target by 2030. The results of this study can be used to inform conservation programs and national climate policy to prioritize wetlands and other land sector initiatives to fulfill Indonesia’s NDC by 2030, while simultaneously providing additional co-benefits and contributing to COVID-19 recovery and economic sustainability.

MASS BALANCE APPROACH AT PALM CARBON CYCLE

Development of Indonesian palm oil industry, not only contributes positively to economic sector. Biggest challenge lies in the negative issues of oil palm development, namely environmental issues. Land use change, forest clearing, deforestation, peat land for palm plantation expansion are environmental issues because they are considered to disturb the balance of greenhouse gases. The use of non-standard fertilizers and POME processing can also increase CO2 emissions, which in turn will reduce carbon storage in vegetation and soil. Soil is the most potent organic carbon sink compared to plants. Soil is an organic carbon pool (reservoir) that accumulates organic carbon in and organic carbon out. The accumulated carbon is influenced by aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, necromass, litter and soil organic matter. So that the development of oil palm is accused of being one of the factors that play a role in soil organic carbon (SOC), soil carbon loss (SCL), net carbon balance (NCB), or greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions. Where this is a very important component in the palm carbon cycle that has an impact on the global climate. The mass balance approach to the palm carbon cycle obeys the law of conservation of mass. The mass of palm carbon before and after processing is constant. This means that the total mass of palm carbon during the process does not change, only a phase change occurs, namely solid, liquid, and gas.

The Climate Science for Ecological Forecasting symposium

The Climate Science for Ecological Forecasting symposium

Socio-economic and ecological outcomes of a community-based restoration of peatland swamp forests in Peninsular Malaysia: A 5Rs approach

Restoration of degraded forest lands is a global priority that aims to restore ecosystems and their functions in ways that provide multiple socio-economic benefits. The Selangor State Forestry Department (SSFD) of peninsular Malaysia in collaboration with an NGO, local people and other stakeholders had been implemented a community-based restoration of degraded peat swamp forest (1000 hectare) programme in Raja Musa Forest Reserve, North Selangor since 2008. However, socio-economic and ecological impacts of this restoration programme are yet to study fully. In this pioneer study, we followed 5Rs approach to peatland restoration and assessed rewetting status (R1), reduction of fire incidences (R2), revegetation (R3), revitalization (R4) and reporting and monitoring (R5) to understand socio-economic and ecological outcomes of the programme. Data on R1, R2, R3 (restoration approach), R4 (qualitative data on socio-economic outcomes) and R5 (management actions and stakeholders’ participation) were collected through four focus group discussions, five key informant interviews, review of NGO’s documents and a stakeholders’ workshop. Quantitative data on R4 (local peoples’ willingness to contribute (WTC) and socio-economic impact (e. g. benefits, education, awareness) were collected through structured interviews of 200 randomly selected households in four surrounding villages. Data on R3 (ecological outcomes- survival rate and growth of planted trees, status of natural regeneration) were gathered through a series of vegetation survey. Restoration project created jobs (e. g. patrolling) and small business (e. g. forest nursery) opportunities for local people, and enhanced tourism, nature education and research in RMFR thus contributed to locals’ socio-economic development (R4). Local people were WTC to tree planting and maintenance (69 %), canal blocking and maintenance (26 %), forest vigilance (34 %), fire control (35 %), trail construction (27 %), and education and awareness creation (40%) voluntarily without remuneration (R1, R2, R3). The SSFD and NGO adopted an innovative approach of PSF restoration where volunteers (local people and other stakeholders) participated in canals blocking to keep PSF wetted, monthly tree planting events, and education and awareness creation campaigns (R1, R3). Canal blockings helped to maintain a mean ground water level of − 24.96 cm. Due to continuous motivation and awareness creation among surrounding villagers, fire incidents in RMFR were reduced (R2). Between 2008 and 2019, 323.72- hectare plantations were developed mainly with Euodia redlevi tree species and few trees of Shorea leprosula, Myristica lowiana and M. pruinose (R3). Selection of species was done by the SSFD and NGO without input from local people (R5). The mean survival percentage of planted trees was 65%. Mean annual increment (MAI) of diameter and height of E. redlevi decreased from younger plantations (3-year) toward older ones (5-, 7-year) (R3). Overall, MAI (dbh and height) across four tree species between age groups was found significantly different (p = 0.001). Regeneration study identified 16 tree species with an average density of 17,798. E. redlevi was dominant, but only 10.6 % of its regeneration attained young tree stage (R3). Suggestions are made to expedite restoration with diverse tree species (R3) with effective participation of local people (R5) and to ensure post-planting maintenance for greater survival of planted trees (R1, R2, R3).

Changes In Physical and Chemical Properties of Peat In Various Ages of Oil Palm Plant In East Kotawaringin District

The purpose of this study was to examine changes in the physical and chemical properties of natural peat forests and peatlands designated for oil palm plantations at various ages of oil palm planting. The research was carried out in 4 (four) locations in East Kotawaringin Regency, namely: (1) Natural peat swamp forest in Kota Besi District (2) Peat land designated for oil palm plantations planting age less than 4 years in Parenggean District; (3) Peat land designated for oil palm plantations with a planting age of 4-10 years in Cempaga District; and (4) peat land designated for oil palm plantations with a planting age of more than 10 years in Mentawa Baru District, Ketapang. The results showed that the peat land designated for oil palm plantations caused changes in the physical and chemical properties of the peat soil. Changes in the physical properties of peat soil are indicated by the color of the peat soil which changes from very dull red in natural peat forests to reddish black in oil palm plantations. Peat maturity changes from fibric in natural peat forest to hemic and sapric on peatland designated for oil palm plantations. The water content has decreased significantly, the older the age of the oil palm plant, the water content will decrease. In terms of bulk density, the older the age of oil palm plantations, the higher the density of peat soils. The water level in oil palm plantations has increased when compared to natural peat forests. Changes in chemical properties were indicated by an increase in peat soil pH, total N, and available P, while a decrease occurred in the C-Organic content. An increase also occurred in the content of K-dd, Ca-dd, Mg-dd, Na-dd, and CEC with increasing age of oil palm plants. When viewed from the relationship pattern of each physical characteristic, water content has a positive relationship with fiber content, the higher the water content will be followed by the higher fiber content or vice versa. Bulk density has a negative relationship with fiber content and moisture content, which means that an increase in the bulk density of peat soil will be followed by a decrease in fiber content and moisture content. The relationship pattern of chemical properties shows that the pH (H2O) of peat soil has a positive relationship with organic C, total N, available P, and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). High or low peat acidity will be proportional to the high or low -organic, N-total, P-available, and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC).

Mapping the restoration of degraded peatland as a research area: A scientometric review

Degraded peatland has reduced many ecosystem services, such as water quality and quantity, biodiversity, carbon storage, climate regulations, and other cultural benefits. Therefore, several initiatives for the restoration of degraded peatland (RDP) have attempted to restore the ecosystem processes, productivity, and services of the degraded peatland to its original natural condition. Notwithstanding the popularity of RDP research among researchers and industry practitioners, a quantitative technique to map a comprehensive survey of the intellectual core and the general body landscape of knowledge on RDP research does not exist. In this study, a scientometric analysis was employed to analyze 522 documents using VOSviewer and CiteSpace. The Web of Science database was used to retrieve bibliographic records using the advanced search “TS (topic) = (‘drained peatland restoration’ OR ‘drained bog restoration’ OR ‘drained mire restoration’ OR degraded peatland restoration’ OR ‘degraded bog restoration’ OR ‘drained peatland reclamation’ OR ‘drained bog restoration’ OR‘ degraded peatland reclamation’ OR ‘degraded bog reclamation’ OR‘ drained mire restoration’ OR ‘degraded mire reclamation’ OR ‘degraded fen restoration’ OR ‘drained fen reclamation’). “The outcome sought to provide relevant information in RDP research, such as (i) publication trends, (ii) research outlets, (iii) most influential keywords, (iv) most influential institutions and authors, and (v) top influential countries active in RDP research. In addition, four clusters were identified to ascertain the central theme of RDP research, in which cluster one is linked to the central research theme-“ impact of drainage on peatland ecosystem services; cluster two focused on the impact of peatland restoration on greenhouse gas emissions; cluster three is associated with peatland restoration and biogeochemical properties; and cluster four is related to peatland restoration and species richness. A new research hotspot, such as soil respiration, was identified via the keywords with the strongest citation bursts. This study will provide various stakeholders (e.g., industry, journal editors, policymakers, and researchers) with an instinctive understanding of the research status and the development frontier of RDP research.

ВЫЯВЛЕНИЕ ТОРФЯНЫХ ПОЖАРОВ ДЛЯ ОЦЕНКИ ЭМИССИИ ПАРНИКОВЫХ ГАЗОВ

Peat fires differ from other wildfires by significant carbon loss, the emission of greenhouse gases and other combustion products as well as by serious environmental consequences. Not only biomass but also peat is burnt. A possibility of detecting peat fires from satellite and ground-based data is considered for the fires in the Moscow region in 2010. The peat fire detection technique was tested by superimposing data on thermal anomalies from Terra/Aqua MODIS satellite data on the peatland contours, as well as by analyzing the vegetation cover changes before fires and the next year using the Landsat satellite multispectral data. Threshold values were found for the fire duration, maximum temperature, and maximum fire radiative power that characterize peat fires and can be used to discriminate between fires on peat lands and peat fires themselves for taking into account emissions not only from biomass burning but also from soil carbon loss.

The Determinants of Farmers’ Technical Efficiency in Corn Production: Empirical Evidence from Jambi Province

The various levels of production will reflect uncertainty and risk factors in corn farming. The main problem in corn farming is that the productivity level is still low. This low level of productivity is due to farmers’ limited ability to allocate inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and appropriate pesticides in peat land. This study aimed to estimate technical efficiency and its determinants in corn production in Jambi Province, Indonesia. In this study, 2020 corn planting season data were used. A sample of 120 corn farmers was taken randomly by the stratified random sampling technique based on cross-sectional data that were collected in 2021. The Cobb-Douglas stochastic frontier production function with incorporation of inefficiency effects was employed to analyze the data. According to the results, the technical efficiency rate ranged from 63.46% to 99.54%, with an average of 74%. The significant factors found to positively affect corn yield were seed quantity, potash fertilizer, labor, and corn variety. Meanwhile, nitrogen fertilizer and pesticide were negatively related to corn yield. The significant determinants of technical efficiency that were positively related to technical inefficiency included educational attainment, training, credit access, and household labor

Repeated Wildfires in the Middle Jurassic Xishanyao Formation (Aalenian and Bajocian Ages) in Northwestern China

AbstractThe coal‐bearing strata in the southern Junggar Basin in northwestern China have recently attracted the attention of coal geologists. Its abundance of coal resources is of great interest as there is a potential of unlocking details about the palaeoclimatic information. Coal deposits have the capacity to record wildfire events, even those with inefficient combustions. To characterize wildfire events and palaeoclimatic history of the Middle Jurassic Xishanyao Formation (Aalenian and Bajocian ages), 22 coal samples from borehole cores and coal mines in the southern Junggar Basin were collected and their macerals were analyzed. The results indicated that fusinite and semi‐fusinite were the dominant components of inertinite with proportions of 35.27% and 54.67%, respectively. The presence of inertinite is an indicator that wildfires occurred at the time of peat land development, and the widespread occurrence suggests large scale wildfires during the Middle Jurassic. This study proposes a new parameter for the evaluation of wildfire features by combining burning frequency and burning temperature. The comprehensive evaluation index (CEI) was influenced by the lacustrine basin level and ancient plant types from a sequence framework. During the Middle Jurassic, most wildfires were surface fires with low level and ground fire with high level. High oxygen levels were estimated in the lower, middle, and upper members of the Xishanyao Formation with corresponding to 26.78%, 24.55%, and 23.55%, respectively. The high oxygen levels would be the primary cause of repeated wildfires in the Middle Jurassic. These results are helpful for understanding palaeoclimatic changes in the Middle Jurassic.

Targeted land management strategies could halve peatland fire occurrences in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Indonesian peatlands and their large carbon stores are under threat from recurrent large-scale fires driven by anthropogenic ecosystem degradation. Although the key drivers of peatland fires are known, a holistic methodology for assessing the potential of fire mitigation strategies is lacking. Here, we use machine learning (convolutional neural network) to develop a model capable of recreating historic fire observations based on pre-fire season parameters. Using this model, we test multiple land management and peatland restoration scenarios and quantify the associated potential for fire reduction. We estimate that converting heavily degraded swamp shrubland areas to swamp forest or plantations can reduce fires occurrence by approximately 40% or 55%, respectively. Blocking all but major canals to restore these degraded areas to swamp forest may reduce fire occurrence by 70%. Our findings suggest that effective land management strategies can influence fire regimes and substantially reduce carbon emissions associated with peatland fires, in addition to enabling sustainable management of these important ecosystems.

A call for refining the peatland restoration strategy in Europe

Abstract Substantial amounts of money have been invested in peatland restoration over the last decades to address the current challenges of global changes and to enhance biodiversity. Given the magnitude of financial investments and the pressing societal needs, it is essential that appropriate decisions are made about the restoration techniques employed to avoid negative consequences and to optimise the benefits to human society. Based on the knowledge and expertise that has been developed over recent decades, three approaches to peatland restoration are discussed regarding their implications for climate change, nutrient fluxes and biodiversity: peatland inundation, topsoil removal and slow rewetting. Considered over the long term, for instance tens or hundreds of years, rewetted peatlands have the potential to fulfil multiple restoration goals, including those targeting climate change mitigation, water quality protection and species conservation. In short term, ill‐informed decisions on the approach to peatland restoration can generate negative impacts, for instance on the downstream water quality or radiative forcing gas emissions. Synthesis and application. The restoration of peatlands, and the trajectory that any restorative action may take, is a matter of societal choice; however, it is essential that society understands the broad potential benefits and disadvantages that such restoration may have so that evidence‐based choices can be made.

Responses of soil enzyme activities and bacterial community structure to different hydrological regimes during peatland restoration in the Changbai Mountain, northeast China.

Appropriate hydrological management is critical for peatland restoration. An important prerequisite for peatland restoration is a recovery of soil biological processes. However, little is known about the effects of different hydrological management practices on soil biological processes during peatland restoration. In this study, the variations in soil properties, enzyme activities, and bacterial communities across different peatlands, namely natural peatland (NP), peatland restored under high water level (HR), peatland restored under alternating high-low water level (HLR), peatland restored under low water level (LR), and degraded peatland (DP), in the Changbai Mountains were investigated. Results showed that soil organic carbon, soil water content, and total nitrogen in NP were significantly higher than those in restored and degraded peatlands, and these soil properties in restored peatlands increased with the water level. The activities of soil hydrolases including β-1, 4-glucosidase, β-1, 4-n-acetylglucosidase, and acid phosphatase in NP were higher than in restored and degraded peatlands, while the activity of polyphenol oxidase in NP was the lowest. In restored peatlands, all measured enzyme activities decreased with the decline in water level. Both bacterial diversity and richness in NP were the lowest, while the highest diversity and richness were observed in HR. Redundancy analysis indicated that soil organic carbon, water level, soil water content, total nitrogen, and pH were the most important factors that affected the soil enzyme activities and bacterial community. Our findings give insight into the effects of different hydrological regimes on soil biological processes during peatland restoration. Maintaining a high water level early in the restoration process is more beneficial to restoring the ecological functions of peatlands than other hydrological regimes.

Industry-driven mitigation measures can reduce GHG emissions of palm oil

Tropical peatland stores a large amount of carbon. In the last 20 years, drainage of Asian peat soil has increased to satisfy the demand of land for plantation agricultures. Industrial oil palm plantations occupy large areas of peatland in Indonesia and Malaysia, with associated GHG emissions and biodiversity loss, here referred to as nature occupation impact. This study performs a detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of 1 kg of palm oil for two case studies: PT SMART's Hanau and Sungai Rungau facilities in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The objective is to quantify the reduction in GHG emissions and nature occupation that has been achieved by implementing the following industry-driven measures: reducing the area of cultivated peat soil, reducing the peat drainage depth, and setting aside part of the land-bank for nature conservation. The results show that 1 kg of palm oil causes 2.72 and 2.25 kg CO 2 -eq./kg palm oil from Hanau and Sungai Rungau facilities respectively. These are 20%–34% lower than average RSPO certified palm oil and 49%–58% lower than average non-certified palm oil. Sungai Rungau achieves the reduction mainly due to a completely peat soil-free supply base. Hanau's peat emissions are instead 0.28 kg, compared to the 0.77 and 2.36 kg CO 2 -eq for RSPO certified and non-certified palm oil respectively, due to a very low drainage depth (18–25 cm compared to 57–73 cm in average of RSPO certified and non-certified respectively) and an overall lower share of oil palms on peat land. The impact on nature occupation is 24%–43% lower in Hanau and Sungai Rungau compared to non-certified oil and 4%–29% lower compared to RPSO certified respectively. About 8% of the total land bank of the Hanau supply-base has been set aside for nature conservation, reducing GHG emissions by 2% and nature occupation by 9%. Both Hanau and Sungai Rungau could also significantly reduce GHG emissions in the palm oil milling stage, by implementing biogas capture in palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment. • Avoiding the cultivation of peat soil reduces the GHG emissions of palm oil production. • When oil palms are on peat soil, reducing the peat drainage depth reduces the GHG emissions. • Nature conservation initiatives reduce GHG emissions and nature occupation of palm oil production. • Capturing the biogas produced in palm oil mill effluents (POME) treatment reduces GHG emissions. • Using the captured biogas in boiler or biogas engine further abates the GHG emissions of palm oil.

Enabling Factors of NTFP Business Development for Ecosystem Restoration: The Case of Tamanu Oil in Indonesian Degraded Peatland

Indonesia’s tropical peatlands are one of the world’s largest carbon sinks, and they are facing the threat of extensive degradation and conversion. The Indonesian government is committed to peat restoration. However, restoration is still a costly, top-down approach lacking community participation, and is focused on the 3R scheme (rewetting, revegetation, and revitalization). Peatland restoration businesses are part of the innovative effort to finance this endeavor. Unfortunately, there is not much information available about the pre-conditions required to create a restoration business. This study seeks to understand the enabling conditions for the development of peatland restoration, with a focus on the tamanu oil business, and to assess whether the same situation might apply in the context of the restoration of degraded peatland. PEST analysis is used to describe the macro-environmental factors of the tamanu oil business and its development opportunities in degraded peatlands. Tamanu oil-based peat ecosystem restoration businesses offer good prospects because of the growing it has grown the bioenergy and biomedical markets, and they can cover a larger area of degraded peatland landscape. For tamanu oil businesses to succeed in peat ecosystem restoration, we recommend that policy documents at various levels include tamanu as a priority commodity for peatland restoration and alternative community businesses, followed by planting programs by all stakeholders. The government and social organizations must take positions as initiators and catalysts, establish a significant number and extent of pilot tamanu plantations, and create a mutually supportive business climate between entrepreneurs and peatland managers.