Reduction In Peak Temperature Research Articles

Thermal response of steel framing members in open car park fires

For open car park structures, adopting a performance-based structural fire design is often justified and allowed because the fire does not reach flashover. However, this design approach requires an accurate assessment of temperatures in structural members exposed to car fires. This paper describes a numerical study on the thermal exposure on steel framing members in open car park fires. Steel temperatures are computed by the coupling of computational fluid dynamics and finite element modeling, and by analytical models from the Eurocodes. In addition, the influence of galvanization on the steel temperature evolution is assessed. Results show that temperatures in unprotected beams and columns are influenced by the section geometry, car fire scenario, modeling approach, and use of galvanization. Galvanization slightly delays and reduces peak temperature. Regarding the different models, CFD-FEM (CFD: computational fluid dynamics, FEM: finite-element method) coupled models predict lower temperatures than the Hasemi model, because the latter conservatively assumes that the fire flame continuously touches the ceiling. Further, the Hasemi model cannot account for the effect of reduced emissivity from galvanization on the absorbed heat flux. Detailed temperature distributions obtained in the steel members can be used to complete efficient structural fire designs based on the member sections, structure layout, and use of galvanization.

Solid oxide electrolysis cell under real fluctuating power supply with a focus on thermal stress analysis

Solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) can efficiently utilize electricity for fuel generation through high-temperature electrochemical reaction. When directly using renewable powers, SOEC will frequently deviate from the optimal operating conditions and generate severe thermal stress, leading to cracks or even thermomechanical failure. To investigate the thermomechanical behavior of SOEC with fluctuating power supply, we develop 2D dynamical models by fully considering the electrochemical reaction, electron/ion/molecular transport, heat/momentum transfer and thermal-mechanical interaction. The distribution of thermal stress is detailly analyzed and the inlet gas temperature is identified as a key factor, where the maximum thermal stress can be decreased from 305 to 135 MPa with the inlet gas temperature increasing from 973 to 1073 K. We also dynamically optimized the anode gas flow rate by following fluctuating applied voltages, where a power function of voltage V5 is found to be an optimum choice. Compared with a constant flow rate of 400 SCCM, the maximum temperature and thermal stress with dynamically controlled flow rate can be decreased by 98.7 K and 65.3 MPa, respectively. This paper presents an implementation approach for the peak temperature reduction and thermal stress optimization in SOECs.

Investigation of Thermal Performance of 3D Printing Integrated Phase Change Materials in Building Structure

This paper aims to create an experimental building structure using 3D printing technology to reduce the interior temperature. Because of its sensitivity to high temperatures, particularly its low heat deflection temperature, and susceptibility to deterioration over time, the Polylactic acid (PLA) material has been preferred to print the layer. In this model, an effort was made to decrease the building's overall cooling load, which may result in a higher amount of ordinary power being required. For the study, a new model of the intended wall was developed and tested. The studies were carried out in two modes: the first without any PCM in the wall, and the second with an additional new model of PCM 3D-printing layer within the wall. The test results demonstrated that the PCM 3D-printing layer inside the wall building lowered the temperature of the outer wall surface, the inner wall surface, and subsequently the building temperature of the indoor area to a huge amount. The achievements are in the percentage peak temperature reduction of 9.8% for the wall's outer surface, 22.6% of the inner wall surface, and 13.4% of the room temperature. With the help of the PCM 3D-printing layer, the peak indoor temperature was decreased by 5℃.

Thermogravimetric and combustion efficiency analysis of Jatropha curcas biodiesel and its derivatives

Thermal behavior of diesel, Jatropha curcas methyl ester (JOME), and its B20 blend (20% biodiesel and 80% diesel) are examined from the profiles of thermogravimetry – differential scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC) under air. TG profiles of samples indicate the mass loss steps to volatilization and combustion of methyl esters. Due to the higher temperature combustion of the intermediate stable compounds that are formed, the peak temperature of combustion is high for JOME compared to diesel and B20 blend. DSC profiles of diesel and B20 JOME indicate an endothermic peak associated with the vaporization of methyl esters for B20 JOME and the volatilization of a small fraction of the diesel. The ignition temperature for diesel and B20 blend is 128 °C, whereas JOME has an ignition temperature of 220 °C. The burnout temperatures for the diesel, JOME, and B20 blend are 283.24, 470.02, and 376.92 °C, respectively. The ignition index for the B20 blend was found to be 73.73% more compared to diesel. The combustion index for the B20 blend was found to be 37.81% higher compared to diesel. The B20 blend exhibits high enthalpy, better thermal stability, and a reduced peak temperature of combustion, with an improved combustion index and an intensity of combustion making it nearly comparable with diesel.

An SMDP-based approach to thermal-aware task scheduling in NoC-based MPSoC platforms

In this paper, we consider the operation of a thermal-aware task scheduler, dispatching tasks from an arrival queue as well as setting the voltage and frequency of the processing cores to optimize the mean temperature margin of the entire chip (i.e., cores as well as the NoC routers). We model the decision process of the task scheduler as a semi-Markov decision problem (SMDP) to account for the most common uncertainties prevalent in MPSoC systems (including: the stochastic nature of the workload inter-arrival times, time-varying workload characteristics, the uncertain chip thermal profile as well as random inter-task communications). SMDP is among the fairly general variants of continuous-time optimization frameworks from the stochastic control theory and is a much more efficient choice compared to discrete-time formalisms (which would lead to an increase in task waiting times and degraded system performance). To solve the formulated SMDP, we propose two reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms that are capable of computing the optimal task assignment policy without requiring the statistical knowledge of the stochastic dynamics underlying the system states. The proposed algorithms also rely on function approximation techniques to handle the infinite length of the task queue as well as the continuous nature of temperature readings. Compared to previous work, the simulations demonstrate nearly 6 Kelvin reduction in system average peak temperature and 66 milliseconds decrease in mean task service time.

Shared reduced ordered binary decision diagram‐based thermal‐aware network synthesis

SummaryIn this work, a multi‐objective algorithm based on nondominated sorting genetic algorithm‐II (NSGA‐II) for thermal‐aware realization of a combinational logic network has been implemented. Input variable ordering of shared reduced ordered binary decision diagram (SROBDD) is done using NSGA‐II such that resulting combinational circuit generates low hotspots by suitable power density distribution. Simultaneous co‐optimization among area, power, and temperature is important in the higher levels of electronic circuit design to reduce the cooling cost. Using a multi‐objective algorithm (NSGA‐II), an effort is made to decrease the temperature by co‐optimization between the power density, area, and power simultaneously. Microelectronics Center of North Carolina (MCNC) benchmark circuits are tested using the proposed approach and an improvement of 13.65% in the silicon area and up to 10% in power dissipation, and 2.72% peak temperature reduction is reported in comparison to existing literature. HotSpot tool and Cadence Innovus are used to determine the peak temperature, actual silicon chip area, and power dissipation of algorithmic optimized solutions.

Optimization of hybridization strategy for improving the efficiency of thermoelectric generator to recover automobile exhaust waste heat

This paper investigates the existing efficiency formulations of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) and compares them with overall efficiency formulation (η overall). As TEG efficiency is the key factor in TEG performance, η overall formulation is validated and compared to the maximum efficiency (η max) formulation with consideration of temperature independent figure of merit (ZT). We have found that the (η max - η overall) is minimum (1.5%) at low temperature difference (100 K) and it increases (up to 12.67%) when temperature difference increases (up to 800 K). η overall is close to η max at low temperature difference but when temperature difference increases, η overall shows the overestimation of the efficiency results. Compatibility factor is the crucial factor for effective hybridization and segmentation of thermoelectric materials. Thermoelectric materials of Half-heusler alloys of Hf0.75Zr0.25Ni0.9Pd0.1Sn0.975Sb0.025 and FeV1.2−xTixSb (x = 0.4) are considered for the p-n couple and TEG module design. The exhaust thermoelectric generator (ETEG) system consisting of 56 TEG modules is proposed to recover the automobile exhaust waste heat. Output power of 51.52 W is obtained from the ETEG system at a temperature difference of 458 K. At a temperature difference of 800 K (when cold end temperature is fixed at 315 K and hot end temperature vary up to 1115 K), the ETEG system can achieve 75.8 W of power. This ETEG system also provides an additional advantage in the life increment of the muffler due to a reduction in peak temperature. The overall efficiency of the proposed ETEG system is found to be 7.81%.

Thermogravitometry and calorimetric evaluation of honge oil methyl ester and its B-20 blend

Thermal characterization of biofuels is useful in design, modeling and operation of the systems. This article examines thermal behavior of honge oil methyl ester (HOME) and its B-20 blend (20% of HOME and 80% of diesel) along with diesel. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravitometry (TG) experiments were performed for a heating rate of 4.72 K/s. The range of combustion temperature is high for HOME when compared to that of diesel and B-20 blend due to the formation of intermediate stable compounds during combustion. Reduction in peak temperature of combustion is noticed for diesel, whereas reverse trend is for HOME and B-20 blend in oxygen to nitrogen atmosphere. TG curves indicate two phases of decomposition for diesel as well as B-20 blend and three phases for HOME. Diesel and B-20 blend starts to decompose from 313K onwards whereas HOME is thermally stable up to 408K. B-20 blend exhibits low offset temperature when compared to diesel and HOME, whereas the reaction range occurs from 331 to 578K when compared to that of diesel from 313 to 553K. Complete degradation occurs at 572.9, 596 and 696K for diesel, B-20 blend and HOME. The behavior of B-20 blend is similar to diesel with reduced emission of harmful gases. Present TG-DSC tests will be useful in optimizing the engine tests with blends. • Reduction in peak temperature for diesel in oxygen to nitrogen atmosphere. • Peak temperature increases for HOME and B-20 blend in oxygen atmosphere. • Observed three phases of thermal decomposition for HOME. •Optimization of fuel blends is possible through TG-DSC tests.

Evaluation of thermal/morphological performance of SSPCM based nanoclay: Influence of the interlayer microstructure of hydrophilic and hydrophobic

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in construction energy consumption and indoor occupancy; this, in turn, has increased the demand for energy efficiency. Thermal energy storage is an effective method for energy saving and improving efficiency. In this study, improved shape-stabilized phase change materials (SSPCMs) for enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings were manufactured and evaluated. These SSPCMs were prepared via the vacuum impregnation of n-octadecane into bentonite nanoclay. Bentonite exhibits a layered tetrahedral and octahedral crystal structure with Na + cations (which feature high cation exchange capacity) in the interlayer space. The Na + ion is a hydrophilic ion that affects the properties of the interlayer. However, paraffin-PCMs are hydrophobic and have poor compatibility with water. Therefore, hydrophobicity is induced in the organic nanoclay by using an organic modifier as the PCM container. Cloisite Na + , Cloisite 15, Cloisite 20, and Cloisite 93 were used to fabricate the SSPCMs. This study compares the amount of PCM impregnated depending on the compatibility of different PCMs between hydrophilic/hydrophobic nanoclays and also evaluates the thermal performance. The observed reduction in peak temperature and the time lag effect of the PCMs confirmed that the organically modified nanoclay and the PCM composites significantly improved the amount of PCM impregnated, thermal conductivity, and latent heat characteristics. The latent heat of the hydrophobic organic nanoclay was 209% higher than that of the SSPCM-based hydrophilic nanoclay. • Composites using paraffin PCM and nanoclay were fabricated and analyzed. • Hydrophobic nanoclay showed 124% higher PCM impregnation than hydrophilic nanoclay. • It was observed that PCM impregnation was affected by the microstructure. • SSPCMs showed up to 84% improved thermal conductivity than pure PCM. • The overall thermal performance in the SSPCM based hydrophobic nanoclay were high.

Thermo-regulating performance of concrete slab loaded with shape stabilized phase change material in tropical climate

The building overheating problem is one of the most important problems facing all over the world. Various methods like using highly thermal resistive building materials, composite building materials were used to reduce the heat gain of the buildings. One of the method which can be used in place of traditional methods is using building elements with high thermal energy storage capacity. The significance of this study is to improve the thermal energy storage capacity of the building element for improving indoor thermal performance of the building. In this study latent heat energy storage capacity of the concrete slab is enhanced by incorporating Shape Stabilized Phase Change Material (SS-PCM) in it. SS-PCM was prepared by incorporating eutectic PCM (Paraffin Wax 70% and Coconut Oil 30%) in highly porous material called zeolite. The zeolite powder successfully incorporate 30 wt% PCM without showing any leakage at elevated temperature. Morphology of the SS-PCM was evaluated through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images. The SS-PCM at 0 wt%, 10 wt%, 20 wt%, and 30 wt% was used to prepare composite concrete slab by replacing fine aggregates. Composite concrete slabs were tested for indoor thermal behavior in real outdoor testing of 72 h. Indoor thermal performance was evaluated on the basis of peak temperature reduction, thermal amplitude, time delay, and decrement factor. The 30% SS-PCM has a high latent heat capacity, which significantly improves thermal energy storage in buildings. Various parameters like peak temperature reduction, time lag, thermal amplitude and decrement factor were evaluated. Concrete slab integrated with 30% SS-PCM shows maximum peak percentage temperature reduction of 10.04 % and percentage reduction in thermal amplitude of 23.71 % in comparison to conventional concrete. Additionally, infrared thermography of all the concrete slabs at different time of the day was done.

Computational fluid dynamics modeling of biomass co-firing in a 300 MW pulverized coal furnace

Biomass energy is one of the most accessible and readily available carbon-neutral energy options as a RES. It is regarded as a viable alternative fuel for coal combustion, particularly for biomass co-firing with pulverized coal, with numerous applications. The CFD can provide reasonably accurate solutions to complex thermo-chemical-fluid interactions, which is useful for understanding the design or retrofit of boilers and can save time, money, and effort. In this study, a CFD simulation of a 300 MW pulverized coal boiler with biomass co-firing was performed to investigate the impact of biomass co-firing with coal, considering the biomass co-firing ratio, mixing effect, and feeding temperature. The results show that the flow field in the furnace does not change significantly under different bio-mass blending ratio. Biomass co-firing can reduce peak temperatures in the furnace and make the temperature distribution more uniform. The concentration of unburned carbon in the furnace decreases as the biomass blending ratio increases. Furthermore, biomass blending has a significant impact on nitrogen oxide reduction, with NOx emissions reduced by 20% and 28%, respectively, when the biomass blending ratio is 15% and 30%. The change of parameters inside the furnace caused by the reduction of biomass powder feeding temperature about 80 K is not significant. On the other hand, co-firing biomass with coal, reduces the risk of biomass spontaneous combustion while maintaining the furnace combustion stability and boiler combustion efficiency. The optimum ratio of biomass co-firing ration is deduced in this study is up to 20%.

Design, development, and analysis of modified concrete block integrated with thermal energy storage material for regulating indoor temperature

This study shows a comparative analysis of indoor thermal behavior of concrete block embedded with macroencapsulated phase change material with fins and without fins. Concrete blocks of similar dimensions were incorporated with square shape, rectangular shape, cylindrical shape, square shape with fins, rectangular shape with fins, and cylindrical shape with fins macroencapsulated phase change material. Pure paraffin wax (70 wt%) and raw coconut oil (30 wt%) are used as phase change material. Real outdoor testing of all the modified concrete block in comparison with conventional concrete block was conducted for continuous 96 h. Various indoor thermal comfort parameters such as peak temperature, thermal amplitude, and decrement factor were investigated. Additionally, thermographic images were also analysed to understand the effect of incorporating various shapes of macroencapsulated phase change material. Result shows maximum peak temperature reduction of 8.43 °C by concrete block integrated with cylindrical shape macrocapsule with fins. Also, concrete block integrated with cylindrical shape macrocapsule with fins shows highest reduction in indoor thermal amplitude of 26.54 % followed by cylindrical macroencapsulated phase change material without fins in comparison with reference concrete block. Lowest deviation in thermal amplitude shows by rectangular shape macrocapsule with fins. Reduction in decrement factor was also observed in modified concrete blocks in comparison with reference concrete block.

Experimental investigation of clay brick with sensible, latent, and hybrid thermal energy storage in buildings

Global warming has caused uneven extremities in the climate such as heat waves, floods, and extreme rise in temperatures. Consequently, there is increase in demand for energy for indoor space cooling in the buildings to create better indoor thermal comfort. Thermal energy storage (TES) using Phase Change Material (PCM) is an effective technology for improving the thermal performance of the building envelope. Energy efficient building envelope can reduce the external heat gain and maintains indoor thermal comfort level easily. In this study, the thermal performance of clay bricks integrated with sensible heat storage material, latent heat storage material, and hybrid (sensible + latent) was investigated. A comparative study of indoor thermal performance in terms of peak temperature, thermal amplitude, time lag, decrement factor of sensible heat storage brick, latent heat storage brick, and hybrid brick in comparison with conventional brick was prepared. Latent heat storage brick has shown the highest percentage average peak temperature reduction of 3.86 % in comparison to conventional brick. Maximum reduction of 13.74 % was shown by latent heat storage brick followed by hybrid heat storage brick and then by sensible heat storage brick. Time lag of 180 min is observed in brick embedded with latent heat storage capacity. Additionally, infrared thermal images suggest that the brick integrated with latent heat storage material shows better indoor thermal performance.

Tailoring the fluid flow distribution in a parallel mini-channel heat sink under multiple-peak heat flux

Parallel micro/mini-channel heat sinks are widely used for the efficient cooling of electronic devices to avoid functional damage and lifetime shortening due to overheating. This study addresses the optimization of fluid flow distribution in parallel mini-channel heat sinks subjected to a non-uniform multiple-peak heat flux to eliminate the temperature hotspots. A 3D heat sink comprising of 16 parallel straight mini-channels is used as a model for study, each mini-channel having the dimension of 1 mm in width, 2 mm in height and 34 mm in length. In particular, an original optimization algorithm is developed to adjust the inlets of these mini-channels according to the temperature distribution on the heating base surface. The fluid flow distribution is thereby tailored, leading to the reduced peak temperature on the heating surface. The effectiveness and robustness of the optimization algorithm are tested and discussed.Results obtained show that the maximum temperature can be reduced by 10 K and 7 K for two-peak and five-peak heat flux cases, respectively, by using the proposed optimization method. The heat sink configuration with optimized channel inlets could always provide smaller thermal resistance than that of the equal channel inlet configuration under different average heat flux or total mass flow-rate conditions. At the same pressure drop, tailoring the flow distribution of the cooling fluid is more effective in reducing the thermal resistance than simply increasing the mass flow rate of the cooling liquid. This optimization method could also be generalized as an efficient thermal management technology for electronic cooling.

Aerodynamic port-aligned fins to enhance thermal-hydraulic performance of jet impingement arrays

Jet impingement arrays with interspersed fluid extraction ports can suffer degraded heat transfer near outlets due to flow separation. This study explores the potential to integrate aerodynamic port-aligned fins on the impingement surface to maintain wall-jet attachment and increase heat transfer area. Such fins may also enhance local transport under inlet nozzles. Laminar-flow conjugate heat transfer simulations are performed for a range of Reynolds numbers and geometries to characterize this concept for slot jet impingement arrays. The simulation methodology is validated with conventional slot jet data from the literature and demonstrated to achieve mesh convergence. Overall flow characteristics are evaluated for a representative geometry, and results show a significant increase in relative average Nusselt number (Nu∗‾)and a reduction in peak temperature of the cooled surface. Conjugate heat transfer effects are evaluated, and are found to be significant for lower conductivity fin materials. Parametric studies are performed to generate performance maps for relative average Nusselt number and pressure drop as functions of Reynolds number, fin height, base width, and tip radius. Pareto curves are generated for the geometries that optimally trade heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop penalty to guide design. Teardrop shaped fins are found to be optimal for low Re, whereas continuously narrowing fins are preferable for higher Re. This jet impingement enhancement is shown to deliver up to 25% enhancement in Nu∗‾ at baseline pressure drop.

Electrochromic Glass system in Norwegian Climate: Control strategies and Impact on the indoor thermal conditions

This work investigates by simulations the impact of the use of Electrochromic (EC) windows in a modern wooden cabin with large window area in a colder climate. The climatic areas considered are 4 different locations in Norway. Three different automatic control systems were used and compared. The windows were alternatively equipped with a textile integrated external blind and an EC glass. The results show that the use of EC glass has a quantifiable impact in term of reduction of peak temperature by 2°C and reduction of number of hours with high indoor temperature. The control system that seems to perform better is based on external solar radiation. In the particular situation of a cabin, where the visual comfort and the surrounding view has the greatest importance, a more complex control algorithm needs to be developed.

Sensitivity of laser powder bed fusion additive manufactured HAYNES230 to composition and print parameters

We developed a coupled CALPHAD and finite element-based computational model of the Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) process for HAYNES230, considering the feedstock composition and packing density. We further used this model to investigate the effect of variation in feedstock composition and print parameters on the quality of the final printed part. Sensitivity of the maximum reached temperature to variations in characteristics of the laser source is also studied considering a single-track laser scan on a layer of metal powder. We analyzed temperature evolution in the powder bed and melt pool geometry along the path of the laser. Our results indicate that the LPBF process of HAYNES230 alloy requires a powder layer thickness of ∼20 μm and laser spot size ∼30 μm radius compared to other alloys. It is essential to achieve sufficient melt pool depth necessary for cohesion with the substrate while avoiding large melt pool width that adversely affects the formation of cracks and residual stresses. We also revealed that reducing the laser power or increasing scan speed drastically reduces peak temperature while less susceptible to solute composition.

Performance of roof‐cool paints prepared using organic acrylic polymer binder and inorganic additives for the thermal reduction in buildings

AbstractThe passive cooling strategy has gained significant attention in recent years due to the dreadful impact of active cooling on energy demand and global warming. This work reports on preparing water‐based new roof‐cool paints and studying their utility on thermal and reflectivity performance. The acrylic binder was synthesized via free‐radical water‐based emulsion polymerization using vinyl acrylic monomers ‐three new paint formulations prepared using the as‐prepared acrylic polymer binder with inorganic pigments. To study the roof‐cooling performance of the prepared paints, a cubical plywood‐box model fitted with the painted cement panel was considered the roof with a halogen lamp to simulate the sunlight. The digital thermal sensors are used to record the temperature at the exterior panel surface, interior panel surface, and model box center point to record temperature with time. The study revealed that the prepared roof‐cool paints showed a synergistic effect in reflecting the incident light and heat rejection with peak temperature reduction in the internal air reaching up to 2.8° C inside the model. These type roof‐cool paint coatings on a roof‐top could undoubtedly bring the temperature down inside the building and achieve substantial savings from the energy utilized for cooling comfort.

Methane removal and the proportional reductions in surface temperature and ozone.

Mitigating climate change requires a diverse portfolio of technologies and approaches, including negative emissions or removal of greenhouse gases. Previous literature focuses primarily on carbon dioxide removal, but methane removal may be an important complement to future efforts. Methane removal has at least two key benefits: reducing temperature more rapidly than carbon dioxide removal and improving air quality by reducing surface ozone concentration. While some removal technologies are being developed, modelling of their impacts is limited. Here, we conduct the first simulations using a methane emissions-driven Earth System Model to quantify the climate and air quality co-benefits of methane removal, including different rates and timings of removal. We define a novel metric, the effective cumulative removal, and use it to show that each effective petagram of methane removed causes a mean global surface temperature reduction of 0.21 ± 0.04°C and a mean global surface ozone reduction of 1.0 ± 0.2 parts per billion. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of methane removal in delaying warming thresholds and reducing peak temperatures, and also allow for direct comparisons between the impacts of methane and carbon dioxide removal that could guide future research and climate policy.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Rising methane: is warming feeding warming? (part 1)'.

Effect of encapsulation area on the thermal performance of PCM incorporated concrete bricks: A case study under Iraq summer conditions

In this paper, the thermal performance of phase change material (PCM) incorporated concrete bricks is studied experimentally. Four concrete bricks (three with macroencapsulated PCM and one without PCM represented the reference) are fabricated, and their thermal performance is tested under hot climate conditions. The study considered the effect of PCM encapsulation heat transfer area on brick's thermal performance at the same PCM quantity. PCM bricks included three different PCM capsule arrangements in which the first brick involved one bulky capsule (Brick-B, 4*4*10 cm3), the second brick had two capsules (Brick-C, 4*4*5 cm3), and the third brick involved five PCM capsules (Brick-D, 4*4*2 cm3). The peak temperature reduction (PTR), the conductive heat transfer reduction (HTRc), and the time delay (TD) were presented and calculated, taking into account the inner and outer brick surface temperatures of PCM bricks compared with the reference brick. Results showed that concrete bricks' thermal performance could be remarkably improved using PCM even under maximum outdoor temperatures. Moreover, the best thermal performance is reported for Brick-D, in which the maximum PTR, HTRc, and TD are reached 156.5 %, ∼61 %, and ∼133 %, respectively, compared with the reference brick under maximum outdoor temperatures.