Peace Mediation Research Articles

UN Sanctions and Mediation in Sierra Leone

Abstract The UN-imposed sanctions on Sierra Leone began in 1997 after the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) led a coup that forced newly elected president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah into exile. Alongside its peacemaking efforts, the UN Security Council explicitly supported the reinstatement of Kabbah, and its sanctions targeted the RUF by limiting travel and banning the trade of arms, petroleum, and diamonds. This article analyzes whether and how UN sanctions pushed the RUF to negotiate, accept, and implement agreements mediated by the Economic Community of West African States and the UN. Its findings are drawn from the qualitative analysis of official documents, memoirs, and interviews with key negotiators. It adds to the inclusion debate in peace mediation literature by discussing whether the coordinated use of sanctions and mediation can resolve the difficulties inherent in including veto players in peace negotiations.

“I Wouldn’t Want to Be a Gender Expert:” Gender Experts in Peace Mediation

Abstract Peace mediation is a professional practice that is increasingly reliant on thematic technical experts, including gender experts. The strategy of including gender expertise in peace mediation reflects the Women, Peace and Security agenda and the call to include dedicated gender expertise in all peacemaking efforts. Based on interviews with peace mediation practitioners, the article analyzes the role of gender experts in peace mediation. We argue that there is a tension between the art of mediation and the art of gender expertise that reflects the gendered power dynamics of peace mediation. We conclude that the strategy of appointing gender experts to peace mediation teams will not “dismantle the master’s house.” However, we acknowledge that without a gender expert very little will be accomplished on this issue. For peace mediation to address the gendered foundations of conflict we argue for the development of an alternate feminist peace mediation practice.

The role of civil society organisations in peacebuilding in post-conflict society: Kenya and Nigeria

The complex and protracted nature of contemporary violent conflicts in Nigeria and other parts of the world poses increasingly significant challenges to the resolution of armed conflicts. Traditional peace mediation strategies and techniques have proven largely inefficient in responding to emerging security challenges presented by conflicts revolving around religious and ethnopolitical affiliations or other issues related to perceptions of group identity. The objectives of the paper are to review the works of civil society organisations (CSOs) in peacebuilding in post-conflict areas. The paper is limited to Plateau State in Nigeria and the post-election violence of 2008 in Kenya because of the efforts put in place by the CSOs in these countries. Based on the findings, the use of non-military or non-use force to resolve conflict provides lasting solutions because it brings the aggrieved parties to the roundtable to vent their grievances, complaints and perspectives about the issue at hand. The participation of the civil society organisations in volatile situations in Kenya and Nigeria has yielded tremendous success because they utilise the residents affected by the violence to fine-tune measures to address the problems. Keywords: Civil, peace, peacebuilding, organisation

European Union Policy in the South Caucasus after the Karabakh War of 2020

The article focuses on the transformation of the European Union’s policy in the South Caucasus after the NagornoKarabakh war of 2020. Before the war, the foreign and security policy in the region had depended on the OSCE Minsk Group, Georgia’s role in the Russian-Georgian confrontation, and the Eastern Partnership program for the South Caucasus. After Azerbaijan won the Nagorno-Karabakh war with Turkey’s support, the previous line of policy stopped being effective. It failed to unite the countries of the South Caucasus, to remove the Russian Federation from the region, and to make the European Union a real mediator in the conflict zone. The democratization of the local political regimes also failed, despite the proEuropean position of Georgia and the velvet revolution in Armenia. As a result of the Armenian-Azerbaijani war of 2020, Russian and Turkish troops entered the South Caucasus, and Russia, Turkey, and Iran started acting as peace mediators. The European Union failed to strengthen the role of the OSCE Minsk Group and the mechanisms of the Eastern Partnership in the region. Ever since 2020, it has been trying to develop a common policy for all ethnic and inter-confessional conflicts in the postSoviet space. The European Union keeps failing in its competition and partnership with Russia, while Turkey is getting more active and independent in the region. Thus, the European Union will have to develop a new model of influence in the South Caucasus and the whole post-Soviet space. In the current global confrontation, it is very important to find an international actor able and willing to interact with all parties. The European Union seems to be the one, and its actions in resolving regional conflicts require a detailed research.

Exporting peace? The EU mediator’s normative backpack

AbstractOn the occasion of the launch of the European Law Open, this article analyses two policy documents of the European Union (EU) on its ambitions in peace mediation, to think about what it could mean for European law to be open to the world. Reading these documents – ‘the Concepts’ – through the lens of the theme that I have been assigned for this opening issue – ‘Europe in the world’ – one discerns an outward-looking EU searching for a greater role in the international field of peace mediation. One also sees instances of eurocentrism: a set of assumptions about the superiority of European (or ‘western’) ways of knowing and doing. In these Concepts, the EU envisages sending EU mediators into the world – either to mediate themselves or to support mediation efforts by others. The Concepts also contain increasingly long lists of EU values to be carried along and distributed during peace mediation. But the Concepts do not consider that in the countries where the EU mediator arrives, this backpack filled with normative baggage may bring other associations. Without more explicit recognition of the EU’s obstinate baggage, the EU is unlikely to be an effective peace mediator or, indeed, a credible global actor. More generally, critical reflexivity could help the EU to address the lingering Eurocentric tendencies that these Concepts reveal. Such critical questioning by the EU of its own assumptions, as well as learning from perspectives from outside the EU or the past, can be a process of focusing on Europe in order to decentre it. That, then, could also be a mission for this bold new European journal.

Реформирование политики Европейского союза в сфере урегулирования конфликтов в контексте кризиса на Украине

Introduction: in 2020 the European Union (EU) reviewed its key documents designed as guidelines for peacekeeping practices; this was aimed at broadening the geography of participation, ensuring more efficient interaction between government and non-governmental structures, as well as providing more flexibility in dealing with parties of conflict zones. For the past three decades, the EU’s peacekeeping activities have changed drastically, turning mainly into a factor of European “soft power” and influence expansion. Objectives: to consider transformations in peacekeeping processes at the US regulatory and institutional levels. Methods: analysis of the EU regulatory and contractual framework, conceptual documents. Results: the article covers the motives for EU participation in peace mediation and the leading theories explaining them. The author concluded that before the escalation of the conflict in Ukraine in 2022, the restrictions that prevented the EU involvement in the conflict played a greater role than the motives for participation. However, due to the confrontation between Russia and the West, the aspect of peacekeeping policy that was associated with unwillingness to collide with Russian interests and always weakened it, has generally lost its relevance. Conclusions: recent transformations in peacekeeping processes at US regulatory and institutional levels expand the EU’s reaction capability; but upscaling these activities and increasing its efficiency do not seem possible without a fundamental review of the Common Foreign and Security Policy instruments.

From Security Provider to a Security Risk?

This paper aims to offer an overview of a unique and decade-long Ethiopian peacekeeping deployment in Abyei, where Ethiopian contingents comprise almost the entire force, where the deployment ended in an ungraceful manner because of disapproval from the government of Sudan. The paper reveals that the Tigray conflict which resulted in the desertion of the Ethiopian peacekeepers and Egyptian pressure on Sudan because of the GERD have contributed to the withdrawal of Ethiopian peacekeepers and the Ethiopia–Sudan border dispute brought a dark shadow on their relations in addition to the disruption of the peacekeeping deployment. The paper concludes that unless Ethiopia makes a progress on internal stability and reboots its relations with its neighbours, Ethiopia’s role as a peace mediator and peacekeeper in the region becomes an ignominy.

Small states in international relations: Some theoretical aspects

One of the important trends in the development of international relations in the second half of the 20th — early 21st centuries is the growing importance of small states in international relations. From passive “pawns” in the big political games of the great powers, they are turning into active players capable of pursuing their own national interests in the international arena. During the Cold War period, European neutral states acquired an unique experience of fruitful cooperation in international organizations, peaceful mediation and peacemaking. Multilateral diplomacy, renunciation of the use of force, striving for a peaceful political resolution of conflicts predetermine, to a certain extent, interest in studying the experience of small countries. The decline in the ability of the leading great powers to resolve conflicts effectively on the periphery of the international system, on the other hand, the capability of small countries to generate new ideas and norms in international relations create preconditions for a further increase in the role of small countries in international relations. It is necessary to study not only the great powers, but also the small countries that make up the vast majority of states, if we want to understand the nature of international relations in general, the formation and behavior of modern coalitions and alliances in particular. This article aims to identify the main stages of the study of small states in international relations, to analyze the main approaches to the definition of the concept of “small state”, to consider the factors of formation of the foreign policy of small states through the prism of some theories of international relations, to find out the features of the foreign policy behavior of small countries in international relations.

Legal Norms and Legitimacy in Peace Mediation

Legal Norms and Legitimacy in Peace Mediation

Fragmented Societies and a Fragmenting International System: Implications for Peacemaking

Abstract The cases of peacemaking in Kosovo and Sudan/South Sudan yield insights into the interplay of international politics, relations among political elites, and reconciliation among identity groups. A durable, positive peace requires an approach by peacemakers that encompasses all these dimensions. Complicating matters, the readiness of states to adhere to rules and norms built up over decades has declined in recent years. Absent a concerted effort to (re)build them, the work of peace mediation will become more challenging and the odds of success incalculably longer. This, in turn, will corrode the ability of external powers, competing via proxy, to work together even on unrelated matters in different parts of the globe.

“Sisters in Peace”: Analyzing the Cooperation between the United Nations and the European Union in Peace Mediation

Abstract This article examines UN–EU cooperation over peace mediation. It compares their conceptual approaches to peace mediation and the evolution of their institutional capacities, demonstrating that the EU has learned from the UN, while actively supporting the strengthening of UN mediation capacity. The most important difference concerns the embeddedness of mediation in a broader foreign policy agenda in the case of the EU compared to the UN. The article also examines models of EU–UN cooperation in mediation practice. Drawing on an overview of cases of UN–EU cooperation, the article develops a typology of the constellations through which the two organizations have engaged with and supported each other. A case study on the Geneva International Discussions on South Ossetia and Abkhazia investigates the effectiveness of this coordination. The findings point to a high degree of effectiveness, although this has not yet translated into tangible mediation outcomes.

Analysis of Normative Orders in International Mediation: Lessons learned from the Colombian Peace Process

The following paper summarizes the findings of a bachelor thesis that analysed the role of normative orders in international mediation by examining the norms applied during the Colombian peace process. The objective of the investigation is defined by the research question, which lessons-learnt can be derived from the Havana Process for the categorization of normative orders in international peace mediation? For answering that question the author analyses the norms and principles applied during the Colombian peace process and thereby, shows the potential to enhance existing scientific models and log-frames for the analysis of norms in peace mediation. The paper provides a new model for classifying normative frameworks by integrating the stage of negotiation as another classifying dimension. Therefore, the model is called “Process-Oriented Model for Categorizing Norms in International Mediation”. The research is built upon a qualitative research conducted in the Colombian cities Medellin and Bogota, where the author held interviews with scientific researchers, political decision-makers, and civil society organisations. The results of the research are complemented by a substantial review of existing academic literature about norms in international peace mediation and the Colombian peace process.

Possible strategies in using diplomatic means of conflict resolution in South Sudan

The study was conducted in order to examine the possible strategies in using diplomatic means of conflict resolution in South Sudan. The research was carried out through a cross-sectional and survey research design, and obtained relevant data from 78 respondents. The research study established that the use of diplomatic approach through peace mediation, being accommodative to the diverse interests of all parties and treating the opposition as stake holders not as enemies is slowly and consistently helping the leadership in South Sudan and her neighbors to work together with lessened suspensions hence for example Uganda opening up her boundaries. Mediation is a broad and rapidly growing field in resolving conflicts in South Sudan. The mediated settlement of conflicts has been of vital chip in helping their people live in peaceful parts of the country, engage in regional trade, education and any other form of co-operation which may leap the country from rags to development. Using tact and diplomacy appropriately can lead to improved relationships with other people and are a way to build and develop mutual respect, which in turn can lead to more successful outcomes and less difficult or stressful communications. The application of shrewd diplomat uses skills centered around an understanding of the people on the opposite side and being sensitive to their opinions, beliefs, ideas and feelings. Developing effective tact and diplomacy skills requires practice and good judgement. The study recommended that all South Sudanese conflicts should be handled through mediation.

Translating the Peace Ambition into Practice: The Role of the European External Action Service in EU Peace Mediation

Peace mediation constitutes a major and natural part of European foreign policy. From the perspective of the European External Action Service (EEAS), this article outlines the foundations of EU peace mediation, the development and genesis of its practice, and contrasts four examples: Belgrade-Pristina, Iran, Georgia and Yemen. Multitrack mediation and its integrated approach provide the specific value added of EU peace mediation. The future challenges in international conflict resolution are now addressed in a new EU concept for Peace Mediation with specific guidelines which point to the need for greater professionalization and a recognition of the EU’s role in this field. EEAS, Peace mediation, EU competence, Early warning system, Conflict prevention, Belgrade-Pristina, Iran, Georgia, Yemen, NGOS

The Boundaries of Peace: A Feminist Analysis of International Mediation Processes

The assumption that peace mediation is gender-neutral reproduces and reinforces the already gendered aftermath(s) of war. Peace mediation is a multilayered conflict resolution mechanism that ranges from grassroots peacebuilding to high-level diplomacy. As a ‘language of peace’, international law has become foundational in high-level peace mediation processes and institutions. International legal feminist and queer theory are critical of international law for its gendered and heteronormative frameworks that reinforce the binaries of war/peace, masculine/feminine or heterosexual/homosexual. Global governance gender law reforms, such as the Women, Peace and Security agenda, are part of the institutional frameworks that guide peace mediation processes. High-level peace mediators are also members of an ‘epistemic community’ regulated by international and regional organizations. The article analyses how masculine and heteronormative international legal institutions and experts shape peace mediation’s already gendered processes and outcomes. The article concludes that contemporary peace mediation approaches must be rethought and that alternatives to the traditional peace table must be imagined.

From Social Psychological Peace Research to the Theory and Practice of International Peace Mediation

Herbert C. Kelman, who as a child had to flee Vienna to escape Nazi terror (1939), became one of the earliest and most important pioneers of modern peace research in the United States, whereas he remained relatively unknown in Europe. A Harvard professor of social psychology and social ethics, he explored social psychological dimensions of international relations and developed a social psychological approach to conflict resolution that took into account the role of emotions and needs in both conflict analysis and the development of joint perspectives on solutions. This results in a special approach to conflict resolution and peace mediation, which Kelman himself applied for decades, primarily in the Middle East.

State of Peasant Land Ownership in Hlukhiv, Konotop and Krolevets Counties of Chernihiv Province (mid 19 — beginning 20 century)

The article analyses the land structure of the peasants of Hlukhiv, Konotop and Krolevets counties of Chernihiv province as a result of the reform of 1861 in the middle of the 19th — early 20th centuries. Certain regional features of the process of land allotment of peasants of different categories are indicated. The common features and peculiarities of the realization of the Little Russian and Great Russian positions, drafting and implementing of charters and land surveying are determined. The counties that used the Little Russian and Great Russian positions are shown (or both at the same time). The sizes of peasant plots and duties for them are shown. The examples illustrate the protection of the interests of landlords by the authorities when endowing peasants of different categories of land. The principles of selection of peace mediators and the level of efficiency of their work, as well as approaches to the creation of peace sites are highlighted. The pace of the surveying process and its consequences for different categories of peasants are analysed.

Neutral States as Peace Mediators: Favoured or Restrained by Norms?

AbstractNeutral states have traditionally been seen as particularly well suited to function as international mediators. This assessment was based on the fact that both concepts – neutrality and mediation – have their roots in attempts to contain violent conflicts and thereby combine realist and idealistic dimensions of international relations. While due to these normative commonalities, the increased influence of norms in mediation might be deemed to favour the role of neutral states as mediators, a more nuanced analysis reveals a mixed impact: The new norms made mediation enter into policy fields to which neutrality does not apply. But they also increased the complexities of mediation processes which in turn could open up new opportunities for neutral states.

The Normative Agency of Regional Organizations and Non‐governmental Organizations in International Peace Mediation*

AbstractThis article analyzes the increasingly prominent role of regional organizations (ROs) and non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) in promoting norms in mediation processes. In particular, we seek to understand the processes by which RO and NGO mediators promote the inclusivity norm to negotiating parties and the outcomes that result. We employ the concepts of local agency and social practices in examining the normative agency of ROs and NGOs in promoting and redefining the inclusivity norm. Through illustrative case studies of peace processes in South Sudan and Myanmar, we argue that ROs’ and NGOs’ mediation practices reflect their claims to alternative resources of power, such as long‐standing expertise and insider status in the context, and build congruence with strong local norms. We provide nuanced theoretical insights on RO and NGO mediators’ claims to agency and provide empirical illustrations on how these claims contribute to constitutive changes to norms.

Glocal Peace Mediators as Norm Translators

AbstractInternational peace mediators operate within a normative universe constituted of interrelated, overlapping and evolving norms. They are constantly involved in the application, creation and adaptation of different norms, whether consciously or unconsciously, explicitly or implicitly. This article interrogates the increasingly complex normative dimensions of peace mediation and, especially, the ways in which peace mediators navigate and translate different norms. It seeks to fill two significant gaps in the existing literature. With respect to the emerging literature on norms in peace mediation, the article innovates by drawing on critical legal pluralism. Through this approach, and by building on legal‐anthropological work on transnational human rights norms as well as on recent empirical studies on peace mediators, the article also adds to the existing international relations scholarship on norms and norm translation, which has not focused on mediation as a site, or on the involvement of mediators as a form of agency.