Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised Research Articles

Difference in Standard Scores of Adults on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Revised and Third Edition)

Differences in the standard scores for the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R; L. M. Dunn and L. M. Dunn, 1981) and the PPVT-Third Edition (PPVT-III; Dunn and Dunn, 1997b) are known to exist for children, with typically higher scores occurring on the PPVT-III. However, these tests are administered into adulthood as well, and score equivalence must be evaluated for this age range. Analysis of data from the PPVT-R and PPVT-III tests from 76 adult participants revealed significant score differences. Participants with poor language skills scored significantly higher on the PPVT-III than on the PPVT-R. The control group showed no significant difference between the PPVT-R and PPVT-III scores. The results suggest that the two tests should not be considered interchangeable.

Core Language Predictors of Behavioral Functioning in Early Elementary School Children: Concurrent and Longitudinal Findings

The authors examined (a) the extent to which kindergarten estimates of core language functions predicted teacher ratings of behavior problems in each of the child's first 4 years of elementary school and (b) the ability of core language measures to predict concurrent behavior problems at each of the early elementary school grades studied. Participants were 74 African American children who were recruited as infants into a longitudinal study of children's health and development. Sixty percent of the families were classified as low-income when the children entered kindergarten. Conduct problems and hyperactivity were assessed with the Conners’ Teacher Rating Scale, core language functions with the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-3 (CELF-3) and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R), and verbal working memory with the Competing Language Processing Task (CLPT). Results indicated that expressive and receptive language at kindergarten predicted teacher ratings of conduct problems, with increasing accuracy as children moved from kindergarten to third grade, particularly for receptive language. None of the early language measures predicted hyperactivity at any of the grades. Concurrent relationships, expressive language, conduct problems, and hyperactivity were stronger in second grade than in kindergarten, while lower scores in working memory predicted higher teacher-reported hyperactivity. These findings underscore the importance of core language functions in the prediction of behavior problems.

The Black-White Test Score Gap in Young Children:Contributions of Test and Family Characteristics

This study examined Black-White test score gaps in young children. Scores from a receptive verbal test (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised [PPVT-R]) and 2 full-scale intelligence tests (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence [WPPSI]) were examined in 2 samples: (a) the Infant Health and Development Program: 315 premature, low birth weight 3- and 5-year olds; and (b) the National Longitudinal Study of Youth-Child Supplement: 2,220 3- to 4-year-olds and 1,354 5- to 6-year-olds. Questions addressed by the study included the following: Would similar test score gaps be seen on both tests and at both ages? Would gaps be reduced by controlling for family conditions and home environment? Would similar gaps be seen for the different tests? Fifteen- to 25-point differences in Black-White test scores were seen at both ages. The addition of demographic conditions reduced the disparities to 9 to 17 points. Including home environment measures further reduced the disparities to 4 to 13 points. Test score gaps were 11/2 to 3 times larger for the PPVT-R than for the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the WPPSI.

Electrophysiological assessment of language function following stroke.

Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were used to assess language function after stroke and demonstrate that it is possible to adapt neuropsychological tests to evaluate neurocognitive function using ERPs. Prior ERP assessment work has focused on language in both healthy individuals and case studies of aphasic neurotrauma patients. The objective of the current study was to evaluate left-hemisphere stroke patients who had varying degrees of receptive language impairment. It was hypothesized that ERPs would assess receptive language function accurately and correlate highly with the neuropsychological data. Data were collected from 10 left-hemisphere stroke patients; all were undergoing rehabilitation at the time of testing. Each patient received a battery of neuropsychological tests including the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R; Minnesota: American Guidance Service, 1981). ERPs were recorded during a computerized PPVT-R, in which pictures are presented followed by digitized spoken words that are either congruent or incongruent with the pictures. Incongruent spoken words within an individual's vocabulary level elicited well-known ERP components. One of the components (the N400) could be utilized as a marker of intact semantic processing. The ERP results were subsequently quantified and N400 derivative scores correlated highly with the neuropsychological findings. The results provided a clear demonstration of the efficacy of ERP-based assessment in a neurological patient group. Language function in stroke patients can be evaluated, independent of behavior, using electrophysiological measures that correlate highly with traditional neuropsychological test scores.

Change in cognitive function over time in very low-birth-weight infants.

Preterm very low-birth-weight (VLBW) infants have a high prevalence of neurodevelopmental disability when evaluated during the first several years of life. However, recent experimental data suggest that the developing brain may recover from or compensate for injury. To determine if there is cognitive improvement throughout early and middle childhood following VLBW birth. Follow-up data of 296 infants born weighing 600 to 1250 g who participated in a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) prevention study performed at 3 northeastern US hospitals between September 1989 and August 1992 and who were serially evaluated at 36, 54, 72, and 96 months of corrected age (CA). The age-normed Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) score and measures of intelligence. Overall, the median PPVT-R score increased from 88 at 36 months of CA to 99 at 96 months of CA; when data from 36 and 96 months of CA were compared, 45% of children gained 10 points or more and 12.5% showed a 5- to 9-point increase in test scores. Similar findings were noted for full-scale and verbal IQ scores. Multivariate analyses demonstrated that increasing age, residence in a 2-parent household, and higher levels of maternal education were all significantly associated with higher PPVT-R scores (for each, P<.001). In addition, early intervention led to greater increases over time in PPVT-R scores among children whose mothers had less than a high school education compared with those with a high school education level or greater (P =.03 by test for interaction). Although most children showed improvement in PPVT-R scores with increasing CA, children with early-onset IVH and subsequent significant central nervous system injury had the lowest PPVT-R scores initially and the scores declined over time (P =.009 by test for interaction). The majority of VLBW children had improvement in verbal and IQ test scores over time. Only children with early-onset IVH followed by significant central nervous system injury had low PPVT-R scores that declined over time.

Receptive and expressive language skills of children with five years of experience using a cochlear implant.

The language of 7 children who had used a cochlear implant for 5 years was evaluated by means of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-3, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised, and the Expressive Vocabulary Subtest of the Test of Word Knowledge. All subjects demonstrated impaired skills relative to normal-hearing children on 1 or more subtests. Variability in performance occurred between subjects and within subjects across subtests. Strengths in semantic skills were evident compared to weaker syntactic and morphological abilities. The nature of the subjects' language impairments is considered with reference to language delay and specific language impairment. The findings support the need for further evaluation of the rate and course of development of language subskills. Investigation of the influences of information processing, and learning styles and strategies, on children's outcomes is also warranted. These findings have implications for implementation of optimal habilitation and education programs for children with cochlear implants.

EXAMINATION OF THREE TECHNIQUES FOR IDENTIFYING FIRST-GRADE CHILDREN AT RISK FOR DIFFICULTY IN WORD IDENTIFICATION WITH AN EMPHASIS ON REDUCING THE FALSE NEGATIVE ERROR RATE

The success of early intervention programs created to prevent children from experiencing reading failure is contingent upon the accurate identification of children at risk for reading difficulties. The present study assessed 291 first graders (M Age = 79.7 months; 54.9% female, 45.1% male) on reading, intelligence, and phonological processing at the beginning and end of the academic year to determine the accuracy of three different approaches to identification. The first procedure used the calibration data from a reference group's discriminant analysis, the second simply determined the children who scored below the mean on all of the reading and phonological variables (Simple Computation), and the last used a weighting system (Complex Computation). The children were classified into good and poor reading groups based on composite reading scores determined by averaging their standard scores on Word Identification, Word Attack, and Passage Comprehension of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised (Woodcock, 1987) at the end of the year. The poor readers were further classified, based on their scores on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) into groups containing children who had reading difficulties (RD) and children whose reading abilities were commensurate with their intelligence (intelligence commensurate, IC). Although all of the procedures provided relatively accurate identification, 80.2%, 87.3%, 89.7%, for the discriminant analysis, Simple Computation, and Complex Computation, respectively, the last procedure provided the best overall accuracy with the smallest percentage of false negatives (6.2%).

Is the Mexican American "Epidemiologic Paradox" Advantage at Birth Maintained through Early Childhood?

We examine the influence of the relative good health at birth in the Mexican American population on their subsequent well-being. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Child Data (NLSY-CD), we conduct a comparative analysis of child development among Mexican American, non-Hispanic black, and non-Hispanic white children ages 3 and 4 (N = 3,710). We use the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) as our operationalization of child development. Descriptive results suggest that, unlike the relative similarity in the rates of low birth weight between the white and Mexican American populations, Mexican Americans have much lower developmental outcomes. Multivariate analysis shows that birth weight is not a powerful predictor of child development, nor does it explain pronounced racial and ethnic differences. Mothers education, poverty, and immigrant status of parents remain significantly more important in the developmental process of all children in our sample.

The effect of breastfeeding on child development at 5 years: a cohort study.

It is uncertain to what degree the relationship between breastfeeding and later cognitive development is a true biological effect, or is confounded by psychosocial factors. The study aim was to further investigate this relationship and the effect of duration of breast feeding on cognitive development. A total of 3880 children were followed from birth. Breastfeeding duration was measured by questionnaire at 6 months of age and a Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test Revised (PPVT-R) was administered at 5 years. PPVT-R scores were adjusted for the effects of a large array of biological and psychosocial confounders. The relationship between breastfeeding and the mean PPVT-R scores were examined using analysis of variance and multiple linear regression. A strong positive relationship was demonstrated between breastfeeding and the PPVT-R scores with increasing scores with increased duration of breastfeeding. After adjusting for a wide range of biological and social factors, the adjusted mean for those breastfed for 6 months or more was 8.2 points higher for females and 5.8 points for males when compared to those never breastfed. These findings suggest a significant benefit to child development is conferred by breastfeeding and is related independently to longer periods of breastfeeding.

Assessment of vocabulary development in children after cochlear implantation.

To assess vocabulary development in children following cochlear implantation and to evaluate the effect of age at implantation on performance. Retrospective study (mean follow-up, 3(1/2) years). Tertiary center. Children with prelingual deafness provided with a cochlear implant between 1988 and 1999, who serially performed the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (60 patients) and the Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (52 patients). The children were subgrouped into those receiving implants at younger than 5 years and at 5 years or older. Age-equivalent vocabulary test score and gap index (chronological age minus the age-equivalent score, divided by the chronological age at the time of testing) were calculated. For each test, the following were performed: calculation of rate of change for age-equivalent score; comparison of earliest and latest gap indices means (the cohort and intergroup and intragroup comparison); and multiple regression analysis demonstrating the effect of age at implantation, sex, communication mode, etiology of deafness, and residual hearing on the rate of vocabulary development. Expressive and receptive vocabulary development rates were 0.93 and 0.71 (age-equivalent scores per year), respectively. Subgrouped by age at implantation, the children's rates (for both vocabularies) were not statistically different (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised, P =.90; Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised, P =.23). The global latest gap indices were significantly less than the earliest (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised, P =.048; Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised, P<.001), indicating an improvement in age-appropriate vocabulary development over time. The age subgroups demonstrated similar results, except for the younger group's receptive gap index. On multiple regression analysis, the significant predictive variables were residual hearing (Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised) and male sex and oral communication mode (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised). Children with cochlear implants developed their vocabularies at rates that were sufficient to prevent an increase in their gap indices as related to ideal scores at testing. A late age at implantation does not singularly preclude beneficial development of vocabulary.

Vocabulary acquisition rate after pediatric cochlear implantation and the impact of age at implantation

Objective: studies of early vocabulary development after pediatric cochlear implantation show growth rates that approach normality. Do these growth rates continue to rise over time and, therefore, allow a ‘catch up’ with ideal scores for age, or do they decline after an initial peak. Could age at implantation be a decisive factor in that process? Design: retrospective study (mean follow-up 4 years). Patients: pre-lingually deaf children implanted between 1988 and1999, who serially performed Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT), (37 patients) and Expressive One-word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (EOWPVT), (35 patients). Outcome measures: the mean rates of age equivalent scores were determined for the whole follow-up period and analyzed further for two post-implant periods (the two halves of follow-up duration of individual patients). After sub-grouping by age at implantation (younger or older than 5 years old), the same analysis was executed for each subgroup. Results: the mean EOWPVT rate of the earlier period was higher than that of the later period (1.33 vs. 0.67, P<0.01) and the mean PPVT rate of the earlier period was higher than that of the later period (0.72 vs. 0.5). The latter difference was not statistically significant ( P>0.05). Within subgroups by age at implantation, the PPVT mean rates were stable for younger implanted patients (0.56 for both periods) and dropped for the older implanted sub-group (0.87–0.43, P>0.05). The EOWPVT mean rates declined significantly for the older patients group (1.72–0.55, P<0.01) but insignificantly for the younger patients (0.99–0.77, P>0.05). Conclusions: vocabulary acquisition rates decline in the post-implantation period. This is more pronounced with older implanted children and the EOWPVT rates. This information on the time course development of vocabulary after implantation would be valuable in counseling and planning habilitation in addition to candidate selection.

Relationship between language skills and academic achievement in first grade.

The ability of scores on the Early Prevention of School Failure battery to predict Stanford Achievement Test scores was examined. Participants included 280 first-grade students who were administered the battery at the beginning of kindergarten and the Stanford Achievement Test at the end of first grade. Principal factor analysis based on the oblique rotation exhibited simple structure between scores on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised, the Preschool Language Scale, and the Stanford Achievement Test (verbal or language factor), with the Draw-A-Man test and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration-Revised loading on a separate factor (motor factor). Results suggest that language-based skills were highly associated with later academic performance in school-aged children.

Porteus maze performance following traumatic brain injury in children.

To investigate planning in traumatically brain injured children, the authors gave the Porteus Maze Test (PMT; S. D. Porteus, 1959) to 276 pediatric patients who had sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI) at least 3 years previously. Sensitivity of the PMT to TBI severity, age at test, and volume of focal brain lesions detected by magnetic resonance imaging was also studied. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (L. M. Dunn & L. M. Dunn, 1981) was also administered as a control measure. Results indicated that the PMT was highly sensitive to TBI severity and to volume of circumscribed prefrontal lesions. In contrast to the PMT data, receptive vocabulary was related to injury severity but not to discrete prefrontal lesions. Implications for mechanisms of cognitive deficit after TBI in children are discussed.

Porteus Maze performance following traumatic brain injury in children.

To investigate planning in traumatically brain injured children, the authors gave the Porteus Maze Test (PMT; S. D. Porteus, 1959) to 276 pediatric patients who had sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI) at least 3 years previously. Sensitivity of the PMT to TBI severity, age at test, and volume of focal brain lesions detected by magnetic resonance imaging was also studied. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (L. M. Dunn & L. M. Dunn, 1981) was also administered as a control measure. Results indicated that the PMT was highly sensitive to TBI severity and to volume of circumscribed prefrontal lesions. In contrast to the PMT data, receptive vocabulary was related to injury severity but not to discrete prefrontal lesions. Implications for mechanisms of cognitive deficit after TBI in children are discussed.

IQ and Scores on the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)

The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) were administered to 217 Veterans Affairs (VA) Nursing Home patients, 104 of whom did not carry a diagnosis associated with brain impairment, and 113 who had a diagnosis associated with degenerative or cerebrovascular conditions. MMSE and IQ scores were significantly correlated in both groups, even controlling for the effects of education. It is suggested that although previous normative studies of the MMSE may provide good general clinical guidance, interpretation of “impaired” performance on the MMSE for those with IQ scores below 90 should be approached with caution. Average MMSE scores for Wechsler IQ classifications are provided.

From Old to New

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III, Dunn & Dunn, 1997) is a relatively recent revision of the old standby, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R, Dunn & Dunn, 1981). Although the new vocabulary test appears to be improved in several aspects, there is one change that warrants serious attention. Data indicate that children from 4 to 10 years of age are scoring, on average, 10 standard score points higher on the PPVT-III than on the PPVT-R (Williams, 1998). This article investigates possible reasons for this change and discusses implications for clinical practice.

The New Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III: An Illusion of Unbiased Assessment?

This article examines whether changes in the ethnic minority composition of the standardization sample for the latest edition of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-III, Dunn & Dunn, 1997) can be used as the sole explanation for children's better test scores when compared to an earlier edition, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R, Dunn & Dunn, 1981). Results from a comparative analysis of these two test editions suggest that other factors may explain improved performances. Among these factors are the number of words and age levels sampled, the types of words and pictures used, and characteristics of the standardization sample other than its ethnic minority composition. This analysis also raises questions regarding the usefulness of converting scores from one edition to the other and the type of criteria that could be used to evaluate whether the PPVT-III is an unbiased test of vocabulary for children from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

Language Characteristics of Children with ADHD

Language characteristics of 11 children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and 11 typically developing children ages 6 to 8 were compared in terms of semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic language skills. Children were tested on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R), the Test of Language Development-2 Primary (TOLD-2), and the Test of Pragmatic Language (TOPL). Samples of children's language were collected during free play with an adult conversational partner using the Pragmatic Protocol. Results indicated that there was no difference between the two groups on receptive vocabulary as measured by the PPVT-R. Children with ADHD performed worse than typically developing children on the sentence imitation, word articulation, speaking quotient, and overall speech and language quotient subtests of the TOLD-2 Primary. Children with ADHD produced more inappropriate pragmatic behaviors in conversational interactions, although their pragmatic knowledge as measured by the TOPL did not differ from that of the normally developing children. Results are discussed in terms of the relative strengths and weaknesses in the communication skills of children with ADHD.

PPVT-R as an Estimate of Premorbid Intelligence in Older Adults

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) was examined as an estimate of premorbid intelligence in a clinical sample of elderly patients (N = 150) undergoing clinical neuropsychological evaluation. PPVT-R standard scores were compared across grossly cognitively intact, mildly/moderately and severely impaired groups of patients, and compared to a short form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) and the Barona regression equation. Results indicate that, while the PPVT-R is vulnerable to increasing levels of cognitive impairment among patients with fewer years of education, the PPVT-R is stable across mild to moderate levels of impairment for patients with greater than 12 years of education. In a sub-sample of grossly cognitively intact patients (n = 91), the PPVT-R standard score correlated significantly with estimated WAIS-R FSIQ (r = .61). Compared to the Barona equation, the PPVT-R was less likely to over-estimate WAIS-R FSIQ in the grossly cognitively intact patients. These data suggest the PPVT-R to be a useful estimate of premorbid ability for patients with a greater than high-school education.

Factors Related to Successful Outcomes Among Preschool Children Born to Low‐Income Adolescent Mothers

The purpose of this study was to describe how the experiences and circumstances of the most successful children born to low‐income adolescent mothers differed from the experiences and circumstances of the least successful children over the first 54 months of their lives. Success was defined as scoring in the top quartile for this sample on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test‐Revised (PPVT‐R) when the children were 54 months old and about to make the transition to kindergarten. The experiences of the 22 children with the highest scores on the PPVT‐R were contrasted with the experiences of the 22 children who had the lowest scores on the PPVT‐R for this sample. The two groups differed markedly on measures of caregiving and home environment assessed when the children were 12, 24, 36, and 54 months old. In addition, mothers of the most successful children achieved more years of education, were more likely to be employed, had fewer children on average, tended to live in more desirable neighborhoods, and were more likely to be living with a male partner. Case studies are also presented on four families (two from the most successful group and two from the least successful group) to further illustrate how the experiences and circumstances of children in the two groups differed.