Pb Fragment Research Articles

Lead exposure in American black bears increases with age and big game harvest density

Hunting has multiple consequences for wildlife, and it can be an important source of environmental pollution. Most big game hunters use lead (Pb) ammunition that shed metal fragments in the tissues of harvested animals. These Pb fragments become available to scavengers when hunters discard contaminated slaughter remains in the environment. This exposure route has been extensively studied in avian scavengers, but few studies have investigated Pb exposure from ammunition in mammals. Mammalian scavengers, including American black bears (Ursus americanus), frequently use slaughter remains discarded by hunters. The objective of this study was to investigate whether big game harvest density influenced long-term Pb exposure in American black bears from Quebec, Canada. Our results showed that female black bears had higher tooth Pb concentrations in areas with higher big game harvest densities, but such relationship was not evident in males. We also showed that older bears had higher tooth Pb concentrations compared to younger ones. Overall, our study showed that Pb exposure increases with age in black bears and that some of that Pb likely comes from bullet fragments embedded in slaughter remains discarded by hunters. These results suggest that hunters may drive mammalian scavengers into an evolutionary trap, whereby the long-term benefits of consuming slaughter remains could be negated due to increased Pb exposure.

The effects of Pb on sperm parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation of men investigated for infertility.

Background Lead (Pb) is one of the metals most prevalent in the environment and is known to cause infertility and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fragmentation. This study aimed to determine the association between seminal plasma Pb and sperm DNA fragmentation in men investigated for infertility. Methods Male partners (n = 300) of couples investigated for infertility were recruited after informed consent was obtained. Sperm parameters were assessed according to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Seminal plasma Pb was estimated by atomic absorption spectrophotometry after digestion with nitric acid. Results In Pb-positive and -negative groups the sperm parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation were compared using independent sample t-test and the Mann-Whitney U-test, respectively. The mean [standard deviation (SD)] age and duration of infertility were 34.8 (5.34) years and 45.7 (35.09) months, respectively, and the mean Pb concentration was 15.7 μg/dL. In Pb positives compared to Pb negatives the means (SD) of sperm count, progressive motility viability and normal morphology were lower (p > 0.05) but the DNA fragmentation was significantly higher 39.80% (25.08) than Pb negatives 22.65% (11.30). Seminal plasma Pb concentration and sperm DNA fragmentation had a positive correlation (r = 0.38, p = 0.03). A negative correlation was observed between sperm DNA fragmentation and sperm concentration, progressive motility, total motility and viability. When the DNA fragmentation was ≥30% sperm concentration and viability decreased (p < 0.05). Conclusions Pb in seminal plasma had a significant effect on sperm DNA fragmentation but not with other sperm parameters.

The lead (Pb) lining of agriculture‐related subsidies: enhanced Golden Eagle growth rates tempered by Pb exposure

AbstractSupplementary food resources (e.g., subsidies) associated with agriculture can benefit wildlife species, increasing predictability and availability of food. Avian scavengers including raptors often utilize subsidies associated with both recreational hunting and pest shooting on agricultural lands. However, these subsidies can contain lead (Pb) fragments if they are culled with Pb‐based ammunition, potentially leading to Pb poisoning and physiological impairment in wildlife. Nesting Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) commonly forage in agricultural lands during the breeding season, and therefore, both adults and their nestlings are susceptible to Pb exposure from scavenging shot wildlife. We assessed drivers of Pb exposure in 258 nestling Golden Eagles (401 total blood samples), along with physiological and growth responses, in agricultural lands across four western states in the United States. We also evaluated the birds’ Pb stable isotope signatures to inform exposure sources. Twenty‐six percent of Golden Eagle nestlings contained Pb concentrations associated with subclinical poisoning for sensitive species (0.03–0.2 μg/g ww), 4% had Pb concentrations that exceeded subclinical poisoning benchmarks (0.2–0.5 μg/g ww), and &lt;1% exceeded either concentrations associated with clinical poisoning (0.5–1.0 μg/g ww) and or those deemed to cause severe clinical poisoning (&gt;1.0 μg/g ww). Lead concentrations were highest in nestlings with close proximity to fields that potentially provided subsidies and declined exponentially as distance to subsidies increased. However, close proximity to agriculture, and presumably subsidies, positively influenced nestling growth rates. Across the range of Pb exposure, nestlings experienced a 67% reduction in delta‐aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ‐ALAD) activity, suggesting nestlings may have been anemic or experiencing cellular damage. Isotopic ratios of 206Pb/207Pb increased non‐linearly with increasing blood Pb in Golden Eagle nestlings, and 45% of the birds were consistent with those of ammunition. However, above 0.10 μg/g ww, the proportion associated with ammunition increased to 89% of the nestlings. An improved understanding of how these positive (growth) and negative (physiology) effects associated with proximity to subsidies interact would be beneficial to managers when considering management scenarios and potentially evaluating any measures taken to reduce Pb exposure across the landscape.

Comparison study of the pT distributions of the charged particles in p–Pb interactions at LHC energies

Transverse momentum [Formula: see text] distributions of primary charged particles were compared to simulations using the Ultra Relativistic Quantum Molecular Dynamics (UrQMD) transport model and the HIJING 1.0 model in minimum bias p–Pb collisions at [Formula: see text] in the pseudorapidity [Formula: see text] regions: [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] and in the transverse momentum range [Formula: see text]. The simulated distributions were then compared with the ALICE data and it was observed that UrQMD predicts systematically higher yields than HIJING 1.0. Both codes cannot describe the experimental data in the range of [Formula: see text], though in the region of [Formula: see text] the model predictions are very close to the experimental results for particles with [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text]. The ratio of the yield at forward pseudorapidity to that at [Formula: see text] was also studied. It was observed that the predictions of the models depend on [Formula: see text]. In the experiment there is no essential difference of yields for particles from the intervals of [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text]. The differences are significant for the models where the ratios are systematically less than 1. This means that the results are not connected to a medium effect but reflect the Cronin effect. We are led to conclude that the codes cannot take into account satisfactorily the leading effect due to the asymmetric p–Pb fragmentation.

Ground Squirrel Shooting and Potential Lead Exposure in Breeding Avian Scavengers.

Recreational ground squirrel shooting is a popular activity throughout the western United States and serves as a tool for managing ground squirrel populations in agricultural regions. Belding’s ground squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi) are routinely shot in California, Nevada, and Oregon across habitats that overlap with breeding avian scavengers. Ground squirrels shot with lead (Pb)-based bullets may pose a risk to avian scavengers if they consume carcasses containing Pb fragments. To assess the potential risk to breeding avian scavengers we developed a model to estimate the number, mass, and distribution of Pb fragments in shot ground squirrels using radiographic images. Eighty percent of shot carcasses contained detectible Pb fragments with an average of 38.6 mg of Pb fragments. Seven percent of all carcasses contained Pb fragment masses exceeding a lethal dose for a model raptor nestling (e.g. American kestrel Falco sparverius). Bullet type did not influence the number of fragments in shot ground squirrels, but did influence the mass of fragments retained. Belding’s ground squirrels shot with .17 Super Mag and unknown ammunition types contained over 28 and 17 times more mass of Pb fragments than those shot with .22 solid and .22 hollow point bullets, respectively. Ground squirrel body mass was positively correlated with both the number and mass of Pb fragments in carcasses, increasing on average by 76% and 56% respectively across the range of carcass masses. Although the mass of Pb retained in ground squirrel carcasses was small relative to the original bullet mass, avian scavenger nestlings that frequently consume shot ground squirrels may be at risk for Pb-induced effects (e.g., physiology, growth, or survival). Using modeling efforts we found that if nestling golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), and Swainson’s hawks (B. swainsoni) consumed shot ground squirrels proportionately to the nestling’s mass, energy needs, and diet, 100% of the nestling period would exceed a 50% reduction in delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase production threshold, the last 13–27% of the nestling stage would exceed a reduced growth rate threshold, but no nestlings would be expected to exceed a level of Pb ingestion that would be lethal.

PREVALENCE, PATHOGENICITY AND ANTIBIOGRAM SENSITIVITY OF PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA ISOLATED FROM DISEASED CHICKENS

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen which produces several diseases and considered all over the world as one of the most dangerous diseases which affect animals. A total of thirteen isolates were identified as P. aeruginosa with percentage of 6.5%, 7.3% from diseased and dead chicken and 4% from one day old chicks. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of oprL gene of P. aeruginosa was applied and showed positive amplification of 504 pb fragments. The isolates were found to be resistant for Neomycin, Nalidixic acid and Lincomycin followed by Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, Chloramphenicol then Tetracycline and Doxycyclin but appeared sensitive to Levofloxacin with percentage of 100%, 92.3% to Norfloxacin, 84.6% to Ciprofloxacin, 77% to both Colistin sulphate and Gentamicin but 61.5% to streptomycin. In experimental infection for all isolated strains via yolk sac in 7 days SPF eggs and via subcutaneous injection in 3 days old chicks which expressed the virulence of these strains by its high mortality rate which reached 100% within 24-72 hrs.

Transverse momentum distribution of primary charged particles in the p–Pb interactions using HIJING 1.0

The shape of the transverse momentum [Formula: see text] distribution of primary charged particles in minimum bias (nonsingle-diffractive) p–Pb collisions at [Formula: see text] is studied in the pseudorapidity regions: [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] and in the transverse momentum range [Formula: see text] using simulated data produced with the HIJING 1.0 code. These are compared with the ALICE data measured by the ALICE detector at the LHC. In the model, the central and forward [Formula: see text]-regions differ more than in the ALICE data and due to this fact HIJING 1.0 cannot describe well the high [Formula: see text] region in the [Formula: see text] distributions. The comparison of results from simulation implies that the HIJING 1.0 considered narrower pseudorapidity distribution for the charged particles than it is in the ALICE data. It cannot take into account satisfactorily leading effect due to the asymmetric p–Pb fragmentation.

Jet fragmentation in p + Pb and Pb + Pb with ATLAS

The modification of jets in heavy ion collisions is a central tool to study the properties of QCD matter at high temperature and its interaction with hard probes. Jet production in heavy ion collisions is observed to be suppressed relative to expectations from pp collisions and the measurement of the longitudinal fragmentation functions in Pb+Pb can provide insight into mechanism of the modification of the parton showering by the QCD medium. In proton-nucleus collisions, a large amount of hot QCD matter is not expected to be made and no evidence of jet suppression is observed. However, an excess is observed in the production of high momentum charged particles in p+Pb collisions relative to pp collisions. The p+Pb fragmentation functions can provide insight into the high momentum charged particle excess and into a possible influence of Pb+Pb jet fragmentation by effects due to the nuclear initial state. The ATLAS measurements of charged particle fragmentation functions in pp, p+Pb, and Pb+Pb collisions are presented.

Understanding the relationship between Alouatta ululata and Alouatta belzebul (Primates: Atelidae) based on cytogenetics and molecular phylogeny

Normal 0 21 The genus Alouatta Lacepede 1799 comprises a group of neotropical primates distributed from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. Ten species of Alouatta occur in Brazil, including Alouatta belzebul (Linnaeus, 1766) and A. ululata Elliot, 1912; this latter being considered a full species or a junior synonymous of A . belzebul . In order to clarify the relationship of A. ululata with A. belzebul and inferring their relationships with other Alouatta species, karyotyping and mitochondrial DNA data were analyzed. Phylogenetic analyses were carried out with a 801 pb fragment of cytochrome b DNA of one specimen of A . ululata and 33 sequences of A. belzebul, A. caraya, A. fusca, A. nigerrima, A. seniculus, A. macconnelli available in GenBank, with Brachyteles arachnoides as outgroup. The G-band k aryotype of a male A. ululata showed a diploid number of 49, similar to the one reported for A. belzebul, with the same pattern of autosome heteromorphism, apparently resulting from a Y-autosome translocation. Maximum-likelihood and Bayesian analysis and median joining network did not show an internal structure within A. belzebul and placed A. ululata haplotype within the A. belzebul clade. K aryotypic and m olecular analyses herein carried out corroborate did not allow the separation of A. ululata from A. belzebul .

Reproductive biology and genetic diversity of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Vamizi island, Mozambique

IntroductionVamizi, an Island located in the Western Indian Ocean, is visited by a small and not fully characterized green turtle (Chelonia mydas (L.)) population. This population is threatened by natural hazards and several human activities, which are used to identify conservation priorities for marine turtles.It was our aim to contribute to the knowledge of marine turtles that nest in Vamizi, with respect to its regional management, and to an area that may possibly be included on the UNESCO World Heritage List due to its potential Outstanding Universal Value.Case descriptionHere, we evaluate the nesting parameters (incubation period, clutch size, hatching and emergence successes rates) and patterns over an 8-year (2003 – 2010) conservation program. We also present the results of genetic diversity based on the analysis of approximately an 850 pb fragment of the mitochondrial DNA control region.Discussion and evaluationWe found that Vamizi beaches host a small number of nesting females, approximately 52 per year, but these have shown a reduction in their length. High hatching success (88.5 ± SD 17.2%, N = 649), emergence success rates (84.5 ± SD 20.4%, N = 649) were observed, and genetic diversity (N = 135), with 11 haplotypes found (7 new). It was also observed, in the later years of this study, a reduction in the incubation period, a dislocation of the nesting peak activity and an increase in the number of flooded nests and an increase of the number of nests in areas with lower human activity.ConclusionsSome resilience and behavioral plasticity seems to occur regarding human territory occupancy and climate changes. However, regardless of the results, aspects like what seems to be the reduction of some cohorts, the number of flooded nests and the diminishing of the incubation period (East and South facing beaches), show that conservation efforts have to be improved.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/2193-1801-3-540) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Hadronic and electromagnetic fragmentation of ultrarelativistic heavy ions at LHC

Reliable predictions of yields of nuclear fragments produced in electromagnetic dissociation and hadronic fragmentation of ion beams are of great practical importance in analyzing beam losses and interactions with the beam environment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN as well as for estimating radiation effects of galactic cosmic rays on the spacecraft crew and electronic equipment. The model for predicting the fragmentation of relativistic heavy ions is briefly described, and then applied to problems of relevance for LHC. The results are based on the FLUKA code, which includes electromagnetic dissociation physics and DPMJET-III as hadronic event generator. We consider the interaction of fully stripped lead ions with nuclei in the energy range from about one hundred MeV to ultrarelativistic energies. The yields of fragments close in the mass and charge to initial ions are calculated. The approach under discussion provides a good overall description of Pb fragmentation data at 30 and 158A GeV as well as recent LHC data for ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sNN p 1⁄4 2.76 TeV Pb-Pb interactions. Good agreement with the calculations in the framework of different models is found. This justifies application of the developed simulation technique both at the LHC injection energy of 177A GeV and at its collision energies of 1.38, 1.58, and 2.75A TeV, and gives confidence in the results obtained.

Molecular identification of Calliphoridae (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of forensic importance in Colombia

Recognizing the importance of the correct identification of insects associated with deceased bodies for an effective estimation of time of death, and taking into account the incidence of flies of the family Calliphoridae in corpses and the difficulty of their taxonomic determination, we evaluated the usefulness of COI mitochondrial gene sequences as a molecular diagnostic tool for identifying forensically important calliphorids in Colombia. Sequences obtained from samples collected in different regions of Colombia and other sequences taken from Genbank were used. Based on the genetic distances calculated using the K2P model, nucleotide divergence and neighbour-joining analyses were performed. Bayesian analyses were also developed and a graphical representation of the variation of the COI fragments for each species. A total 545 pb fragments were obtained; the values of intraspecific distance when all sequenced were included, ranged between 0% and 2.904% and the interspecific distance ranged between 0.188% and 18.07%, with an overlapping distance, caused mostly by the inclusion of species with only one sequence. When we excluded species with a single sequence and L. eximia was analyzed as two subgroups, a distance gap of 2.292% was obtained, which is an optimal value for the validation of this technique. Reciprocal monophyly was observed in most species. We conclude that the COI gene is a good marker for delineating species of the family Calliphoridae in Colombia.

10～400MeV/uにおけるPb(C,x)フラグメンテーション反応のJQMD+GEMを用いた再現の問題点

10～400MeV/uにおけるPb(C,x)フラグメンテーション反応のJQMD+GEMを用いた再現の問題点

Cytauxzoon felis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' coinfection in a Brazilian domestic cat (Felis catus)

This article describes the first detection of Cytauxzoon felis, using molecular techniques, in a naturally infected domestic cat from Brazil, South America. Coinfection with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' was also found. The molecular identification of the piroplasmid species was performed by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and sequencing analysis. A 284 pb fragment of the gene encoding the 18S ribosomal RNA region was amplified and showed 99% identity with other C. felis strains from North America. In addition, PCR-RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) analysis, which amplifies a 595 bp fragment of the gene encoding 16S ribosomal RNA of some bacterial species, identified the co-infecting species as 'Candidatus M. haemominutum'.

Embedded lead shot in European starlings Sturnus vulgaris: an underestimated hazard for humans and birds of prey

The poisoning of wild animals by lead (Pb) ammunition fired by hunters has been known for many decades, especially in the case of waterbirds. More recently, it has been demonstrated that raptors are also exposed to the risk of plumbism when feeding on unretrieved quarry that was wounded or killed by hunters. Further studies reveal that even humans can be subject to a significant Pb dose while consuming game animals killed by traditional ammunition. Given the relevance of this issue, several pieces of research have been carried out to assess frequency, dimension, and the number of Pb fragments embedded in the carcasses of ungulates, partridges, ducks, and other birds to evaluate the risk related to the consumption of game meat. In spite of their great importance as quarry species across southern Europe, until now, no data have been available on small passerines. To assess the quantity and type of Pb embedded in songbirds, we x-rayed 196 starlings shot in Italy and found Pb pellets and/or visible fragments in 118 carcasses (60.2 %). We counted 128 shotgun pellets in 85 carcasses. In 28 birds, we detected both whole pellets and lead fragments; in 33, we found only small fragments. By excising and weighing a sample of 20 shotgun pellets (diameter 1.35–1.99 mm), we calculated a Pb load of 3.75 g in the whole sample of 196 starlings, corresponding to an average of 27.32 mg/100 g of body weight. This is a conservative estimation, because fragments were not considered. Compared to game birds of a larger size, the starlings in our study had a lower amount of embedded Pb, but the shot pellets and fragments embedded in their tissues were abundant and tiny. Given the results of previous studies, the quantity and level of fragmentation suggest that the risk of Pb poisoning cannot be ruled out for humans and birds of prey consuming the meat from songbirds killed with traditional ammunition.

Weathering of Lead in Fort Irwin Firing Range Soils

This paper investigates the physical and chemical transformation of metallic lead (Pb) in Ft. Irwin firing range soils. Soil samples were collected from berms of two small arms firing ranges, an active one and an abandoned one, located in the Mojave desert. Pb bullet fragments found in field samples were analyzed by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in order to determine the mechanism of metal breakdown in desert climates. Moreover, in order to further elucidate metallic Pb surface reactions, the process by which Pb fragments are subjected to field weathering conditions was simulated in the laboratory by performing wetting and drying cycle tests on the surface of metallic Pb specimens. Results indicated that metallic Pb bullet fragments recovered from the active range field samples were primarily covered by surface layers of cerussite and hydrocerussite, but litharge was also identified. In the abandoned range, hydrocerussite and metallic Pb were the predominant Pb species, but laurionite was also identified. The wetting and drying test results also confirmed the predominant presence of cerussite and hydrocerussite. In addition, the presence of copper (Cu). Overall, it seems that in these high pH desert environments, Pb would eventually form insoluble secondary minerals and therefore, its mobility is expected to be quite limited.

Detección molecular del virus de la hepatitis E en hígados de cerdo destinados al consumo humano en el estado de Nuevo León, México

Molecular detection of HEV in pig livers destined for human consumption in Nuevo Leon, Mexico. 87 livers were collected from pigs slaughtered in TIF and 40 livers from butchers. A 212 pb fragment of HEV ORF2 gene was amplified by semi-nested RT-PCR. 19.54% (17) of tif's and 22.5% (9) of butcher's livers were positive for HEV. Sequencing of the amplified products showed a 94%-95% homology with the sequences reported for genotype 3. Our results indicate that HEV is circulating in swine herds in the state, constituting a probable source of contamination of pig meat products.

Multiple metals exposure and neurotoxic risk in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) from two Great Lakes states

In the present study, the authors determined concentrations of several elements (As, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Mn, Pb, Sb, Zn) in the brains and livers of 46 bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) from two Great Lakes states, Michigan and Minnesota. To explore whether exposures are of neurological concern, the authors assessed their associations with neurochemical receptors (N-methyl-D-aspartate [NMDA] and γ-aminobutyric acid A [GABA(A)]) and enzymes (glutamine synthetase [GS] and glutamic acid decarboxylase [GAD]) that play critical roles in vertebrate neurobehavior and reproduction. For most elements, levels in the livers and brains did not differ between region and gender. Hepatic Pb levels averaged 33.1 ppm (dry wt), 30.4% of all carcasses exceeded proposed avian Pb thresholds (>26.4 ppm), and in 30.8% of the birds examined evidence of Pb pellets or fragments was found. Significant changes in the activities of GS and GAD were related to brain concentrations of several metals (Pb, Cd, Co, Cu, Zn). No relationships were found among any of the nine elements and NMDA or GABA(A) receptor levels. When combined with the authors' previous study on these same eagles that showed Hg-associated alterations in GS, GAD, and NMDA receptor levels, the present research suggests that bald eagles are exposed to various elements, especially Pb and Hg, that are capable of causing changes in GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission. The functional significance of these neurochemical changes warrants attention.

Wild captured crab, Chasmagnathus granulata (Dana, 1851), a new host for white spot syndrome virus (WSSV)

The most serious problem confronted by the shrimp industry is the occurrence of diseases which have been causing enormous impact on worldwide production. Among the pathogenic agents, white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) can be considered one of the most virulent and devastating viruses, showing quick dissemination and causing high mortality, accompanied by great economic losses. WSSV can infect several species of cultivated shrimp as well as different species of crustaceans which can become alternative reservoirs for the pathogen. WSSV was first reported in Brazil in January, 2005 in Litopenaeus vannamei cultivated in the southern state of Santa Catarina. Here, we report for the first time the occurrence of WSSV in the wild crab, Chasmagnathus granulata (Dana, 1851). C. granulata is part of the local fauna in Santa Catarina and can be found abundantly both in the shrimp rearing ponds and around the farming areas. C. granulata specimens were collected in a local lagoon (Imarui Lagoon) and examined by two-step PCR (nested PCR). The result was confirmed by sequencing of the amplified 941 pb fragment. WSSV monitoring in endemic species and the study of its geographic distribution can contribute to the knowledge of the virus dissemination in the environment, to the comprehension of the host–viral interaction in distinct species and also to the establishment of sanitary strategies to minimize the impact caused by this viral disease.

Oral Lead Bullet Fragment Exposure in Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus)

Lead (Pb) is a worldwide environmental contaminant known to adversely affect multiple organ systems in both mammalian and avian species. In birds, a common route of exposure is via oral ingestion of lead particles. Data are currently lacking for the retention and clearance of Pb bullet fragments in gastrointestinal (GI) tract of birds while linking toxicity with blood Pb levels. In the present study, northern bobwhite quail fed a seed-based diet were orally gavaged with Pb bullet fragments (zero, one or five fragments/bird) and evaluated for rate of fragment clearance, and changes in peripheral blood, renal, immune, and gastrointestinal parameters. Based on radiographs, the majority of the birds cleared or absorbed the fragments by seven days, with the exception of one five-fragment bird which took between 7 and 14 days. Blood Pb levels were higher in males than females, which may be related to egg production in females. In males but not females, feed consumption, body weight gain, packed cell volume (PCV), plasma protein concentration, and δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity were all adversely affected by five Pb fragments. Birds of both sexes that received a single Pb fragment displayed depressed δ-ALAD, suggesting altered hematologic function, while all birds dosed with five bullet fragments exhibited greater morbidity.