Payments For Environmental Services Research Articles

Forest Tales? Unravelling Divergent Land Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC) Maps and State Narratives in Vietnam’s Northern Uplands

The Vietnamese state has advocated for the sedentarization and market integration of upland northern farmers over the past thirty years, leading to both agrarian and forest transitions. This article presents a comprehensive land use and land cover change (LULCC) analysis of two adjacent upland borderland districts, Phong Thổ and Bát Xát, in northern Vietnam, spanning two neighboring inland provinces, Lai Châu and Lào Cai. These districts are primarily home to ethnic minority farmers who are encouraged by Vietnamese state officials to not only protect forests but to also transition toward cash crop cultivation from less intensive semi-subsistence agriculture. Our LULCC maps, covering the period from 1990 to 2020, revealed a reduction in the speed by which closed-canopy forests were disappearing. During interviews, state officials were confident that this was due to a range of state policies and state-sponsored initiatives, including the promotion of tree crops and payments for forest environmental services. Our own fieldwork in the region suggests other factors are also supporting this decline in deforestation rates, rooted in ethnic minority farmer livelihood decision making. Some state officials were also able to point to factors hindering a more positive result regarding forest cover, including population pressure and new infrastructure. Interestingly, despite our positive findings on Land use and land cover change (LULCC) related to forest cover, one-third of state officials, upon reviewing our LULCC maps, firmly maintained that errors had occurred. Some even proposed that there was an actual rise in forest cover. Our study shows that these discrepancies raise compelling questions about officials’ political motivations and ongoing pressures to uphold the central state’s reforestation and agrarian transition discourses.

O Impacto de Pagamentos de Serviços Ambientais na Mata Atlântica: Um Estudo Geoespacial

ABSTRACT Objective: this study aimed at understanding the impact of payment for environmental services (PES) programs in relation to environmental indicators in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest biome. Theoretical approach: the literary framework included three topics of discussion: payment for environmental services, program evaluation, and theory of change. In a broader way, the theme of evaluating programs in the agricultural area was articulated, considering the precepts of the theory of change. Method: geospatial data on land use, between 2016 and 2021, and amounts paid under the PES program with rural producers were collected to evaluate the impact on the increase or decrease in degraded and recovered areas. Data analysis included multivariate statistics, more specifically the comparison between groups and the relationship between variables through multiple linear regression. Results: the empirical results highlight that there is a significant difference in the increase in areas under recovery between producers who received PES values and producers not participating in this program. As for the types of PES, the one that pays for improvements in land use contributed most to the increase in the area under recovery. Conclusions: the study shows that evaluation methods for PES must be increasingly complex and measurable, as there are several possibilities for impacts depending on the objective of the program. The results are relevant to the theoretical, practical, and social spheres, in addition to helping to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

The Impact of Payments for Environmental Services in the Atlantic Forest: A Geospatial Study

RESUMO Objetivo: este estudo buscou compreender o impacto dos programas de pagamento por serviços ambientais (PSA) em relação aos indicadores ambientais no bioma da Mata Atlântica brasileira. Marco téorico: o arcabouço literário contemplou três tópicos de discussão: pagamento por serviços ambientais, avaliação de programas e teoria da mudança. De maneira geral, articulou-se a temática da avaliação de programas na área agrícola, considerando os preceitos da teoria da mudança. Método: dados geoespaciais de uso de solo, entre 2016 e 2021, e de valores pagos em programa de PSA junto a produtores rurais, foram coletados para avaliar o impacto no aumento ou diminuição de áreas degradadas e recuperadas. A análise de dados contemplou a estatística multivariada, mais especificamente da comparação entre grupos e da relação entre variáveis através da regressão linear múltipla. Resultados: os resultados empíricos destacam que existe diferença significativa no aumento de áreas em recuperação entre os produtores que receberam valores em PSA e os produtores não participantes deste programa. Quanto aos tipos de PSA, aquele que paga por melhoria no uso do solo foi o que mais contribuiu com aumento da área em recuperação. Conclusões: o estudo evidencia que os métodos de avaliação para PSA devem ser cada vez mais complexos e mensuráveis, pois existem várias possibilidades de impactos conforme o objetivo do programa. Os resultados são pertinentes para as esferas teórica, prática e social, além de ajudarem no alcance dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (ODS).

Can REDD+ succeed? Occurrence and influence of various combinations of interventions in subnational initiatives

The institutional predecessor of REDD+ is the integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) that combines restrictions on forest access and conversion (negative interventions) withnon-conditionaldirect benefits (positive interventions) to compensate local stakeholders for income losses from those restrictions. The idea of REDD+ was to improve on the ICDP model with a different kind of positive intervention:conditional direct benefits, often known as payments for environmental services or PES. How has this idea played out in reality? In a sample of 17 (out of 377) active REDD+ initiatives across the global South, we identified the combinations of interventions actually deployed and elicited household assessments of how those interventions affected their land use decisions with respect to forests. We found that 71 % of the households in our sample had participated in some number of forest interventions ranging from one to ten. About a quarter of those households were offered conditional direct benefits, most often in combination with non-conditional direct benefits. Nearly half of the households had received only non-conditional direct benefits. Many of those households were also subject to restrictions of various kinds. Thus, rather than abandoning the well-established ICDP approach in favor of the conditional incentives that conceptually define REDD+, most initiative proponents opted to deploy multiple interventions. Their approach is validated by our finding that the likelihood a household reports that the interventions caused them to adopt land use changes that could be classified as reducing carbon emissions is positively and significantly related to the number of interventions that they experienced, but not affected by whether any of those interventions are conditional. We also find that restrictions play an important role: 37 % of the households were subject to at least one negative intervention, and those households were significantly more likely to report that the interventions had induced land use changes that could be classified as reducing carbon emissions.

Public Environmental Conservation Policies Based on the Economic Instrument of Payment for Environmental Services: A Pioneer Experience in Mato Grosso Evaluated by its Actors

Objective: To understand how the public policy for payment for environmental services in Tangará da Serra, Mato Grosso, Brazil, is evaluated by its actors in the period 2014-2019. Theoretical framework: The contribution brought by economic instruments to improving social well-being made them popular among successful environmental public policies by reducing the distortion between the economic and social values attributed to natural resources. Method: Study characterized as theoretical-empirical, descriptive, which uses a qualitative approach in the application of semi-structured interviews during the first quarter of 2019 followed by case study procedures of interpretative analysis. Results and conclusion: Indicate the existence of difficulties common to other national initiatives, operational advantage and institutional limitations. There is exploratory potential for the growth and development of public policy, however, due to the lack of specific federal legislation regarding environmental services and local technical limitations, its institutional arrangement needs improvement. Implications of the research: It presents the common difficulties of implementing public environmental policies using the economic instrument of payments for environmental services in Brazil. Originality/value: Given the global need for the State to provide water supply through the conservation of natural resources, this study collaborates with the Public Administration by understanding the difficulties experienced by the municipal public administration in the face of the unprecedented experience in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil .

Multifunctional Forest Restoration in Brazil: A Critical Analysis of the Trends and Knowledge Gaps in the Scientific Literature

The global demand for forest products will increase in the coming decades due to population growth and increasing environmental awareness. Therefore, the production of forest products through multifunctional forest restoration could be a meaningful opportunity for large-scale restoration while promoting sustainability and vegetation recovery. We conducted a comprehensive literature review to explore how forest restoration in Brazil can meet the growing global demand for forest products, thereby promoting the widespread adoption of restoration practices. The number of forest restoration publications addressing forest product supply has increased, but remains limited. Notably, only studies on payments for environmental services have increased significantly over the years, while studies on non-timber forest products and timber have not increased significantly. Similar patterns and trends were found in earlier studies. Many studies do not provide insights into the socioeconomic outcomes of multifunctional forest restoration, which is consistent with other research findings. The studies cited 108 native species of commercial value. According to the literature, these species can provide multiple forest products, making their management economically attractive. Multifunctional restoration in Brazil has the potential for meeting global demand for forest products and supporting large-scale restoration. However, advancing scientific and technological knowledge in this area is needed to make this feasible.

Payment for Environmental Services and the Financial Viability of Agroforestry Systems: An Integrated Analysis of Socio-Environmental Projects in the Descoberto Basin—Federal District

The policy of payments for environmental services is implemented in public policies in Brazil, and there are many efforts to increase projects that subsidize rural producers, combining payments with incentives for good agricultural practices that promote these services. Thinking about ways to add these values in projects to restore degraded areas is an opportunity to generate monetary benefits for producers and attractiveness for stakeholders, aiming to increase investments in projects of this nature and gain scale in the restoration of these areas. In this way, this study evaluated the financial viability of a project to implement 16.9 hectares of agroforestry systems in agrarian reform settlements located in the Descoberto HydrographicBasin near Brasília, Federal District, and the proposition of a scenario of payment for environmental services associated with adoption of this agricultural practice by producers. The results were promising for both investors and farmers, as demonstrated by the financial analysis criteria (NPV: USD 63,097.49, IRR: 71%, simple payback: 3 years). The PES scenario was even more attractive, proving to be an encouraging increase for the adoption of this practice by producers.

Payments for environmental services in Mangrove Forests: A review and recommendations

Mangrove forests play a vital role in climate change mitigation and the provision of environmental services. The aim of this study is to compile and analyze the most recent research on the willingness to pay for mangrove forest environmental services. The overview focuses on three key aspects: (i) general payment activities related to mangrove forest environmental services, (ii) the factors influencing participation in payment for these services, and (iii) the methods used to estimate the willingness to pay for such services. The analysis reveals that the majority of current studies are oriented toward conserving and promoting sustainable forest management. Additionally, psychological, behavioral, economic, and social factors all contribute to decisions regarding payment for environmental services. Furthermore, the contingent valuation method is commonly employed to estimate the willingness to pay for mangrove forest environmental services. Based on these overview findings, this study suggests several directions for future studies.

The Urgency of Regulating Payment for Environmental Services as an Environmental Economic Instrument at The Regional Level in Central Sulawesi

The Urgency of Regulating Payment for Environmental Services as an Environmental Economic Instrument at The Regional Level in Central Sulawesi

Correction to: Non-monetary incentives to increase enrollment in payments for environmental services

Correction to: Non-monetary incentives to increase enrollment in payments for environmental services

Payment for environmental services: Forest conservation and poverty alleviation in a tropical region of Mexico

Payment for environmental services (PES) is a scheme that seeks to reduce human pressure on forest ecosystems by financially rewarding forest landowners for conserving their forests. However, in Mexico, the program is questioned because it prioritizes communities in the poorest regions over areas with a high risk of deforestation. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the PES program for forest cover conservation and poverty alleviation in a tropical region of Mexico. Deforestation and forest cover maintenance was determined by land use/cover change analysis using GIS. Effect on poverty alleviation was analyzed qualitatively in two communities. In the study area, 4738 ha of tropical and temperate forests were deforested during 2007–2017. The deforestation rate is similar in ejidos and private properties with and without PES. Most ejidos where deforestation occurred correspond to areas with higher economic development. Deforestation and the percentage of the population living in poverty are negatively correlated. Compared to other subsidies, the PES represents very low income, nevertheless, the social perception of the program is positive. Based on the lower percentage of deforestation avoided in the poorest areas and the minimal impact on livelihoods, the current PES approach is not highly effective.

Application of a system dynamics model to evaluate the implementation of payment for environmental services as a reconversion mechanism in high mountain farming

In Colombia, livestock farming has been developed in highlands areas, with influence on these ecosystems and their ecosystem services. Reason why, in 2017, the Colombian issued legal regulations (Decree Law 870), which establishes the payment for environmental services (PES) as a key instrument in the conservation of strategic areas to achieve comprehensive rural development. The objective of this study was to evaluate the response of two type of highlands livestock agroecosystems to the implementation of a mechanism such as the PES, through scenario simulation based on the System Dynamics methodology. It should contribute to the understanding of this activity and to the formulation of policies for land management, use and conservation. Data and information used in this study came from farms located in La Nevera, municipality of Palmira, Department of Valle del Cauca. Gathered information were used to develop qualitative models (i.e. causal loop diagrams) and quantitative models (stock and flow diagrams) in order to built a mechanistic model aimed to improve understanding of the multiple interactions and synergies that constitute the local agro-ecosystems. It includes the livestock and landscape components and their interaction influencing the ecosystem. The developed model evaluated three alternative scenarios of management with eventual economic incentives to farmers: i) business as usual; ii) incentive for areas destined to preservation; iii) areas released for restoration and future conservation. The main results showed that the proposed PES are a viable strategy for obtaining additional income for the land owners and they would also contribute to the maintenance of the typical natural coverage of the territory. However only considering economic balances, the opportunity cost of reducing livestock farming to preserve land is lower than cost of expected preservation. It might impair the choice of modifying the preferences of land use within the farms. The novelty of the study was the use of a system dynamic model to evaluate future sustainable patterns of PES to prevent side effects on the Colombian mountain area from a social and environmental point of view.

Who wants to pay for Pantanal? Experiences of payment for environmental services in the preservation of a single biome

Environmental conservation standards in Brazil are insufficient and must be completed by economic instruments, such as Payments for Environmental Services (PESs). These instruments are at initial implementation stage in Pantanal, which is one of the world’s greatest extensions of flooded areas. This biome undergoes increasing pressures for the exploitation of its natural resources. Thus, the objectives of the current research are to investigate PESs in Pantanal and to analyze their potential to be used for environmental protection purposes. Interviews were conducted with political authorities, NGO representatives and professional association members. Four PESs were identified. All counties in Pantanal region receive the Ecological ICMS, which is a percentage of a tax on commerce and services received by the State and redistributed to counties hosting Conservation Units. Another PES, called Private Natural Heritage Reserve (RPPN), enables the exemption of Territorial Tax. Despite protecting 250,000 ha, RPPNs only reach 1.7% of preserved areas in Pantanal. In addition to these PESs, which count on State participation, it was possible to find two mechanisms based on consumers’ participation, organic meat and organic honey production. However, only two producers were certified to produce organic meat and one to produce organic honey. Although PESs are important mechanisms, they play limited role in Pantanal region. PESs between producers and consumers depend on incentive policies and on information about environmental benefits provided to consumers. Ecological ICMS should be subjected to rigorous selection process in choosing who can receive the benefits. Although RPPNs are often used as PESs, their incentives are insufficient and should be improved.

Implementation of payment for forest environmental services and its influence on the livelihood of ethnic minorities in Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam

Payment for Forest Environmental Services (PFES) is considered a major breakthrough in socializing the forestry sector by transferring money from forest resource users to the local communities in charge of forest protection activities. This paper aims to elucidate the PFES implementation in Thua Thien Hue Province, and to assess the influence of the PFES on the livelihood of forest protectors, especially ethnic minorities. We interviewed 133 out of 397 households in two villages in Hong Kim commune, divided into two different groups: Forest protection groups (FPG) and Non-forest protection groups (NFPG). Our study indicated that the success in negotiating and expanding the number of service users has increased the forest area covered by the PFES for seven years. Nonetheless, revenue from PFES still fluctuates from year to year due to their great dependence on a limited number of service users. PFES payment (only 2%) did not contribute significantly to the total income of forest protector households. Interestingly, both monetary and non-monetary values seem to encourage local people to join the forest protection group. To better implement PFES, it is necessary to identify and expand service beneficiaries. Remote sensing technology improved PFES in TTH by aiding forest patrols, but there is a lack of maintaining forest quality during degradation, needing commitments to restore degraded forests and raise patrol accountability.

Identifying Key Indicators for Monitoring Water Environmental Services Payment Programs—A Case Study in Brazil

The recognition of the natural environment as an element that provides ecosystem services to society has led to an increased interest in the study of these services and the implementation of payment for environmental services (PES) initiatives. Although in recent years it has gained strength as an environmental conservation and restoration strategy, the PES instrument lacks something in the monitoring of its actions that inhibits its concrete efficiency, such as indicators that represent the study area. Based on the results of water, soil, and vegetation quality reported in a case study on a rural property participating in a PES-Water scheme in Brazil, the present study aimed to establish minimum water quality indicators relevant to the monitoring of PES-Water programs and propose a flowchart for monitoring actions and environmental aspects to support future projects of the same nature. Based on the results, the monitoring of these areas must involve the continuous checking of soil indicators, water and vegetation. In addition, details of the microclimate and socioeconomic conditions must be recorded. The results should also be systematized, disseminated, and made available in a monitoring system to serve the various actors involved, thereby facilitating the understanding of the PES instrument and the remuneration for the environmental services provided.

Non-monetary incentives to increase enrollment in payments for environmental services

Abstract Payments for Environmental Services (PESs) are increasingly used to foster farmers’ adoption of greener practices, but their effectiveness is often undermined by low enrollment. In a large randomized field experiment (N = 20,000), we test several non-monetary incentives to increase enrollment into the French implementation of the Agri-Environmental Schemes program of the European Union. We find that sending 10,000 information letters triggers the enrollment of 75 ± 52 farmers at a cost of 102 $\pm\ $71 Euros/new enrollee. Pre-stamped reply forms increase contacts with caseworkers but fail to raise enrollment. Testimonies by other farmers seem to decrease the effectiveness of the letters. Diffusion effects could increase the impact of our non-monetary incentives by 40% to 50% and decrease the cost of an additional enrollee by around 30%.

Ecotourism and Sustainable Economy: Case Study of the Pedra do Altar Archaeological Complex in Barra de Santana/PB

Objectives: To analyze the potentiality of the Archaeological Complex of Pedra do Altar as ecological tourism through the understanding of the cultural heritage as a new source of tourist attractions and economic development for small towns, the identification of ecological trails related to the economy for sustainability and preservation of natural space and the relationship of Ecological Economy, Payment for Environmental Services and Tourism in the global/local scale. Methodology: The research is a case study regarding the potential of ecological tourism that the Archaeological Complex Pedra do Altar in Barra de Santana/PB exerts, for this, it was performed a survey of works related to the proposed theme in the last 5 years (2017 - 2022), the capture of images in the locality, the preparation of maps of use of the study area and the construction of alternatives that enable ecological tourism and payment for environmental services in the locality. Final considerations: The private organization charges a fee, which can be considered a PES, because it reverts to the maintenance of the site to better serve tourists, however it is not institutionalized. The visitors recognize tourism as a profitable and sustainable activity for local development, however, it is necessary to rethink the activity based on the conceptions of ecological economy, together with public management.

The dynamics of water yield: Case of Kuranji watershed, Padang City, West Sumatera, Indonesia

Land-use change is the main cause of high runoff in the Kuranji watershed and has social and economic impacts on the public. This study aims to determine the dynamics of watershed water yields and to formulate directions and recommendations for the management of the Kuranji watershed. The dynamics of the water yield in Kuranji watershed were analysed based on the SWAT hydrological model from the conservation area scenarios. The results showed the value of the dynamics water yield in Kuranji watershed is: reliability 0,79 with a duration of 290 days a year, resilience value 0,67 or 67% certainty of success of the watershed to return to normal conditions with a recovery period of 75 days a year and the average vulnerability is 389.466 m3/day. So that the form of a decision to be made with these conditions is that this area can be developed but the types of plants grown must be sensitive to water shortages. The direction and recommendations of the Kuranji watershed management on the future are to grow public awareness through the formation of public perceptions, conservation on target, continuous watershed conservation, public empowerment, and incentive policies governing payment for environmental services.

Payment for environmental services related to aquifers: a review of specific issues and existing programmes

In Europe, payment for environmental services is increasingly perceived as an alternative to government-led incentives for promoting pro-environmental land use and attaining policy objectives of groundwater quality and quantity. The processes linking land-use decisions and ecosystem services related to aquifers (EcSA) are complex, involving different time and space scales. This raises specific challenges for the effectiveness of payment for environmental services related to aquifers (PEvSA). After defining the concepts of PEvSA, we highlight these challenges—uncertain links between land use and EcSA, spatial and temporal dimensions, monitoring and compliance issues, the invisibility of aquifers and the social equity/efficiency dilemma—and identify good practice and innovative designs for addressing them. We then review how existing PEvSA schemes throughout the world have succeeded, or not, in addressing these challenges and identify evidence of their effectiveness. We conclude that future implementation of PEvSA should pursue (i) the use of science-based approaches for determining land-use prescription; (ii) the adoption of result-oriented payments adapted to PEvSA; (iii) the use of longer term contracts adapted to water transfer time in aquifers; (iv) a finer spatial targeting of PEvSA; (v) the use of contracts with collective conditionality; and (vi) the labelling of products that generate EcSA as ways for stimulating demand. We finally call for establishing formal evidence of the impact of PEvSA on EcSA.

Taking the diet of cows into consideration in designing payments to reduce enteric methane emissions on dairy farms

Enteric fermentation from dairy cows is a major source of methane. Significantly and rapidly reducing those emissions would be a powerful lever to mitigate climate change. For a given productivity level, introducing fodder with high sources of n-3 content, such as grass or linseed, in the feed ration of dairy cows both improves the milk nutritional profile and reduces enteric methane emissions per liter. Changing cows' diet may represent additional costs for dairy farmers and calls for the implementation of payments for environmental services to support the transition. This paper analyzes 2 design elements influencing the effectiveness of a payment conditioned toward the reduction of enteric methane emissions: (1) the choice of emission indicator capturing the effect of farmers' practices, and (2) the payment amount relative to the additional milk production costs incurred. Using representative farm-level economic data from the French farm accountancy data network, we compare enteric methane emissions per liter of milk calculated with an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Tier 2 method, to baseline emissions from a Tier 3 method accounting for diet effects. We also quantify the additional milk production costs of integrating more grass in the fodder systems by estimating variable cost functions for different dairy systems in France. Our results show the relevance of using an emission indicator sensitive to diet effects, and that the significance and direction of the additional costs for producing milk with a diet containing more grass differ according to the production basin and the current share of grasslands in the fodder crop rotation. We emphasize the importance of developing payments for environmental services with well-defined environmental indicators accounting for the technical problems addressed, and the need to better characterize heterogeneous funding requirements for supporting a large-scale adoption of more environment-friendly practices by farmers.