Payments For Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Study on Farmers’ Willingness to Maintain the Sloping Land Conversion Program in Ethnic Minority Areas under the Background of Subsidy Expiration

The sloping land conversion program (SLCP) is one of the most important payment for ecosystem services (PESs) in the world, as direct stakeholders and the final implementers of the SLCP, farmers’ willingness to maintain the achievements is the basis for the consolidation and sustainable operation of the SLCP. Based on a survey of 975 farmers in Hunan Province, Gansu Province, and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, this study used the elastic net model to accurately select the influencing factors of farmers’ willingness to maintain the SLCP and the logit model to measure these factors. Finally, combined with the interpretative structural model (ISM), we further analyzed the hierarchical structure of each significant influencing factor. The main results are as follows. Firstly, off-farm employment, whether the head of the household is a village cadre, labor number, land area, income level, subjective norms from the organization, altruistic rationality, active ability, and policy perception had significant and positive impacts on farmers’ willingness to maintain the SLCP. In contrast, whether the head of the household is an ethnic minority and the expiration of the SLCP subsidy had significant and negative impacts on farmers’ willingness to maintain the SLCP. Secondly, the factors affecting farmers’ willingness to maintain the SLCP are at different levels, being both independent and interrelated. Among them, the deep-rooted factors are whether the head of the household is an ethnic minority, the expiration of the SLCP subsidy, the labor number, and whether the head of the household is a village cadre. Based on the above results, government departments should broaden the income channels of farmers in ethnic minority areas, strengthen the publicity to maintain the SLCP in ethnic minority areas, and improve the SLCP’s follow-up policy to enhance the farmers’ willingness to maintain the SLCP and ensure the program’s sustainability.

Feasibility of Payment for Ecosystem Services in Khageri Sub-Watershed, Chitwan, Nepal

The study entitled “Feasibility of payment for ecosystem services in Khageri sub-watershed, Chitwan, Nepal’’ was undertaken in Chitwan district focusing to explore the major ecosystem services and their potential services buyer and seller and to determine willingness to pay for the ecosystem services and willingness to accept for ecosystem services. For this, household survey was done in both upstream and down streams communities to understand people perception on WTP and WTA for ecosystem services. In addition, focus group discussions and key informant interview was done in both upstream and downstream community to identify the major ecosystem services by using the snowball technique and their potential services buyer and service sellers. The study show majority of people of upstream and downstream community around Khageri watershed have strong WTP and WTA for ecosystem services. Thus they have strong WTP and WTA for ecosystem services. Most of the respondents have preferred community group as potential institutions for collecting and providing compensation. Thus, Developing a PES in Khageri sub watershed is socially acceptable and financially feasible. For this the proper institution should be identified and their respective roles should be fixed and developing a national PES policy is needed. Conducting of capacity building and awareness program among the upstream and downstream is required for the successful implementation of PES mechanism.

The importance of communal forests in carbon storage: Using and destabilizing carbon measurement in understanding Guatemala's payments for ecosystem services

Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are a conservation initiative that offer payments to people who own or manage lands that provide desired ecosystem services. Utilizing mixed methods, I examine how PES in the form of government‐issued forestry incentives interact with land tenure to affect carbon storage in Guatemala's Western Highlands. Land tenure is a larger determining factor for carbon storage than payments, as communal forests managed by Indigenous Maya K'iche' communities have significantly higher carbon stocks than private landholdings in these same communities. No statistically significant differences were found in carbon stocks between incentivized and non‐incentivized plots, and participants enrolled only a fraction of their land, likely prioritizing enrollment of degraded plots. These results indicate the importance of using both social and physical science methods to understand the physical outcomes and social context of forest management. I also reflect on why carbon storage is often prioritized, drawing on a critical physical geography framework to analyze carbon accounting methods. Measuring carbon storage gives us the tools to describe the success of communal forest management, yet I also caution relying on the quantification of ecosystem services as a method for landscape valuation and suggest avoiding prioritizing carbon storage and sequestration.

The role of agroforestry areas in the potential provision of ecosystem services: the case of the Molise Region.

Changes in land use and land cover represent the main cause of the loss of natural capital and the ecosystem services supply. Analyzing the dynamics and impacts of these changes is also important with respect to the implementation of the D.lgs 34/2018, which recognizes ecosystem services generated by forests and identifies payments for ecosystem services as innovative tools for sustainable forest management. mapping, quantification, and economic valuation of ecosystem services. In our study, we analyzed the change in the supply of ecosystem services in relation to land use and land cover dynamics that occurred between 1960 and 2018 in the Molise Region. 
 To do this type of analysis, we employed a methodology based on the GIS analysis of the agroforestry landscape transformation processes and qualitative matrices of potential supply of ecosystem services linked to land cover. The results obtained could be functional to the prediction of future scenarios and to the identification of adaptive strategies for the mitigation of impacts due to land cover changes at regional and national scales.

Pathways from the payment for ecosystem services program to ecological and socio-economic outcomes

As a new natural resource management tool based on financial incentives, payment for ecosystem services (PES) plays a vital role in balancing socio-economic development and ecological protection. China’s Sloping land conversion program (SLCP) is one of the most expensive PES programs in the world, and its implementation effectiveness has received much attention. However, the complex mechanism by which project implementation affects socio-economic development and ecosystem services remains elusive. To reveal the interaction pathways between PES programs, socio-economic development, and the natural environment, Loess Plateau, a key region for SLCP implementation in China, was selected as the subject of this study. Furthermore, the RUSLE model was adopted to evaluate the changes in soil conservation services between 2000 and 2015. Based on the Structural equation model (SEM), the links between SLCP, agricultural development, population transfer, urbanization, natural environment, and ecosystem services were investigated. The results showed that the soil conservation services in Loess Plateau were significantly improved after SLCP implementation, with a total increase of 13.88 × 108 t from 2000 to 2015. The long-term socio-economic impact of SLCP was not significant, except for the first stage of SLCP implementation where agricultural development was inhibited. The implementation of SLCP directly improved soil conservation services and improved soil conservation services through through its indirect effect on agricultural development. We also found that the different stages of SLCP implementation had different effects on the improvement of soil conservation services. The efficiency of the second stage was higher than that of the first stage. Socio-economic factors and natural environmental conditions had negative effects on soil conservation services. In addition, the socio-economic effects of SLCP implementation varied at different stages. Based on the study results, we suggest that the subsequent SLCP implementation should focus on maintaining the results, and the impact of different socio-economic factors should be considered. This study provides a framework for a better understanding of the complex mechanisms through which SLCP affects socio-economic, ecosystem services, and natural conditions.

Constructing a Model of Government Purchasing of Ecological Services: Evidence from China’s Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park

The harmonious coexistence of man and nature is the primary goal of the establishment of national parks. Creating an ecological service supply model that takes into account the efficiency of ecological services, the fairness of residents’ livelihoods, and the reasonable distribution of rights and responsibilities is an important way of achieving that goal. China’s Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park (NTLNP) is a typical national park with state-owned forest land as the main body. Before the establishment of the national park, state-owned forest enterprises (SOFEs) and local government forest departments (LGFDs) were always the undertakers of ecological services. Issues such as the distribution of rights and responsibilities between the NTLNP Administration, SOFEs, and LGFDs and the livelihood of forest workers need to be resolved urgently. This study takes the NTLNP as the study area and constructs a model of government purchasing of ecological services. The main results show the following: (1) The driving factors of the government purchasing of ecological services are increasing the workload of ecological services, the need for workforce transfer, and the optimization of subsidy standards. (2) In the construction of the responsibility system, the NTLNP Administration is the purchaser, SOFEs and Protection Stations are the undertakers, and groups such as third-party institutions and the public are the Supervisors and Evaluators. (3) Setting the purchase price in 2022 at CNY 47,654.44 per person while maintaining an average annual growth rate of 6.10% will match the per capita wage income level of urban workers nationwide in 2035. Based on the research results, it is proposed that payment for ecosystem services (PES) and ecological compensation (EC) have mature research paradigms in solving the problems of efficiency and fairness, but government purchasing of ecological services is a more appropriate policy tool in terms of arranging rights and responsibilities. This study attempts to construct a model of government purchasing of ecological services in order to provide a useful reference for national parks with state-owned land as the main body.

Use of the Forest Environment Transfer Tax for forest data development and exchange: evidence from all 47 prefectures in Japan

To facilitate forest management as part of climate change mitigation and adaptation, the Forest Environment Transfer Tax (FETT) was introduced in Japan in 2019, representing a form of payment for ecosystem services. In this study, we focused on the introduction of the tax and the status of its use based on an analysis covering Japan’s 47 prefectures. This involved reviewing policy processes related to FETT and conducting a survey among relevant prefectural officers to identify how FETT is being used, with a focus on plans, policies, and systems related to forest data development and exchanges. The proportions of both total and FETT budgets used for forest data development were significant. Several prefectures are improving forest-related data in a two-way manner by coordinating with municipalities. Correlation analysis revealed that prefectures with greater proportions of privately owned forests allocated more budget to forest data development, which is in line with the FETT’s intended purpose. This result suggests that the absolute size of such forestlands is less important, but that the proportion of privately owned forests carries political and social weight that could be a critical factor in budget allocation.

Study on public willingness and incentive mechanism of ecological compensation for inter-basin water transfer in China in the carbon neutral perspective

Constructing payments for ecosystem services (PES) for inter-basin water transfer is one of the effective means to adjust the interest relationship and promote low-carbon development in the region. The inter-basin water transfer ecological compensation policy (IWTECP) in China is a PES project facing a series of problems. To this end, we applied contingent valuation method (CVM) to examine the willingness to pay (WTP) in water-receiving area and willingness to accept (WTA) in water-source area of the eastern route of South-to-North Water Transfer Project, China. The WTP and WTA values were 206.29 RMB/(person·year) (USD 32.37/(person·year)) and 443.29 RMB/(person·year) (USD 69.55/(person·year)) respectively. Bayesian network model was employed to explore the influencing factors, it was found that educational background, per capita monthly household income and the recognition of the importance of the project to the city or the country had the greater influence on WTP, while age, per capita monthly household income and the influence of project on personal life were the most influential factors on WTA. By comparing the influencing factors of WTP and WTA, the intention preference of the respondents was discussed. Then, SWOT matrix analysis method was adopted to put forward incentive mechanism from the perspectives of internal public background and external environmental policies. Our results could provide incentive policies for target groups of consumers, improve the efficiency of ecological protection, and promote the reform of the IWTECP.

A Framework Payment for ecosystem services to reconstitute forest areas closed to grazing in the Ifrane National Park (Morocco).

Overgrazing constitutes the major constraint threatening the sustainability of the forest ecosystems in the Ifrane National Park. The operations of regeneration and afforestation impose to close areas to grazing over one period exceeding ten years, generally lead to the opposition of the local population to the programs of reconstitution of the forest ecosystems. To solve these problems, a text of compensation for closed perimeters of afforestation or regeneration to the grazing was established in 2002. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the role of the compensation mechanism described as a payment tool for forest ecosystem restoration programs. For this purpose, an analysis of quantitative and qualitative indicators, based on individual and semi-structure interviews, before and after the introduction of the compensation mechanism is used. The GIS mapping approach is also used to visualize some results spatially. Based on results, this mechanism contributed to conserving the forest ecosystem and enhancing rural livelihoods at the level of Ifrane National Park, resulting in the regression of the forest infractions with a rate of 48%. On the socio-economic level, this mechanism contributed to initiate a climate of trust resulting in the collaboration of the population with the foresters and, to carry out many projects of community interest generated socio-economic benefits relevant for the users.

Farming in the mountains of Nepal: crops, soil fertility, livelihoods and farm-forest linkages

In national plans, policies, and earlier development programs, livelihoods of mountain people in the Nepal Himalayas were overlooked, rendering them more susceptible to climatic risk and disaster. The management of marginal mountain agricultural land is crucial for food security, improved living conditions, and environmental protection. For enhancing livelihoods and ecological benefits, mountain agriculture is vital, however, a consolidated review on mountain farming is limited in Nepal. We used "mountain" AND "Nepal" AND "farming" OR "agriculture" in the literature's title published between 1978 and 2021 on Google Scholar and did an in-depth review of papers on the four thematic areas: mountain crops, soil fertility, livelihoods, and farm-forestry linkages. We observed a variety of nutrient-rich mountain crops with a market potential as niche products, low and deteriorating soil fertility of agricultural lands, a weakening of the farm-forest links, and an increase in the diversity of mountain livelihood choices. Small landholdings, labor outmigration mainly men, feminization of mountain farming, and food insecurity are the greatest challenges to the growth of agriculture in mountainous regions. There are, however, ample opportunities to make mountain regions green through agroforestry and community forests, to improve livelihoods by introducing niche value chains for products, to explore payment for ecosystem services through downstream-upstream linkages, and to recognize their traditional knowledge and practices through citizen science research and development.

The role of situated knowledge and values in reshaping payment for hydrological services programs in Veracruz, Mexico: An actor-oriented approach

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) is a prominent neoliberal, market-based environmental policy tool to promote conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES) that has been applied since the late 1990s in both industrialized and developing countries. Recent studies have documented how PES programs do not actually function as market-based programs, and that they are often modified on the ground by local actors. Adding to this literature, our study uses an actor-oriented approach to examine how local actors in Veracruz, Mexico respond to and make changes to payment for hydrological services (PHS) programs, a prominent PES program used to address water quality and quantity issues. Drawing on interviews with 15 institutional actors and 58 landowners, we investigate how these actors challenge and modify these programs to make them more responsive to local socioecological conditions and needs. Our argument is that situated knowledge about land uses and socioecological conditions, and norms of equity and fairness, play central roles in empowering social actors to alternately adopt, contest, and re-shape PHS programs to better meet local conditions and needs.

Scarcity Value Assessment of Ecosystem Services Based on Changes in Supply and Demand: A Case Study of the Yangtze River Delta City Cluster, China.

Rapid urbanization and economic development have resulted in a mismatch between the supply and demand of ecosystem services. The theoretical value of ecosystem services (ESTV) is not suitable for determining ecosystem service compensation, posing challenges for integrated regional ecological development. A scarcity value model was used to analyze the influence of changes in supply and demand on the scarcity value of ecosystem services (ESSV) in the context of land-use change. The spatio-temporal distribution characteristics and trends of the ESSV from 2010 to 2020 were assessed in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) urban agglomeration in China, and the driving factors were analyzed to provide theoretical guidance for horizontal ecological compensation across regions. The results show the following: (1) In the scenario that did not consider the impact of supply and demand changes on the scarcity value, the total ESTV decreased by 8.67% from 2010 to 2020, and high-value areas shifted to the west and south, whereas low-value areas shifted to the central and northern region and the Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai Ringbelt. The ESTV was low in Shanghai and Jiangsu and high in Zhejiang. (2) In the scenario that considered changes in the supply and demand of ecosystem services, the ESSV increased from RMB 213 million in 2010 to RMB 1.323 billion in 2020; an increase of 521.13%. The scarcity value showed high variability within the provinces, with a larger difference between Zhejiang and Jiangsu and a smaller difference between Anhui and Shanghai. The ESSV was higher in counties with increased urbanization and high population density and lower in counties with slower economic growth and fewer people. (3) Regional ecological integration planning and management should be strengthened, and the ESSV might be considered as the reference standard for ecological compensation. The ESSV showed that spatio-temporal heterogeneity might guide the conversion from ecological resources to ecological capital and promote the regulatory role of market mechanisms to achieve horizontal payments for ecosystem services across regions.

Local Effects of Payments for Ecosystem Services on Rural Poverty

Local Effects of Payments for Ecosystem Services on Rural Poverty

Using ecosystem services to identify inequitable outcomes in migratory species conservation

AbstractBiodiversity conservation efforts have been criticized for generating inequitable socio‐economic outcomes. These equity challenges are largely analyzed as place‐based problems affecting local communities directly impacted by conservation programs. The conservation of migratory species extends this problem geographically since people in one place may benefit while those in another bear the costs of conservation. The spatial subsidies approach offers an effective tool for analyzing such relationships between places connected by migratory species. Designed to quantify ecosystem services provided and received in specific locations across a migratory species’ range—and the disparities between them—the spatial subsidies approach highlights three axes of inequity: between indigenous and settler colonial societies, between urban and rural populations, and between the Global North and Global South. Recognizing these relationships is critical to achieving two mutually reinforcing policy goals: avoiding inequitable conservation outcomes in efforts to conserve migratory species, and ensuring effective long‐term conservation of migratory species. In demonstrating how the spatial subsidies approach enables the identification and quantification of inequities involving three migratory species (northern pintail ducks, monarch butterflies, and Mexican free‐tailed bats), we argue that a spatial subsidies approach could apply to migratory species conservation efforts worldwide under the context of “payments for ecosystem services.”

Integrating future grassland degradation risk to improve the spatial targeting efficiency of payment for ecosystem services.

Spatial targeting plays a key role in improving the efficiency of payment for ecosystem services (PES). However, the risk of grassland degradation after implementing PES increases uncertainty about the efficiency of PES. Here, we identified the spatial heterogeneity of grassland degradation risk using Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model, then incorporated grassland degradation risk as a criterion into PES spatial targeting using cost-benefit analysis and ranking optimization. The framework was applied to a case study of the Three-River-Source National Park, China. We found that grasslands in the study area continued to degrade between 2015 and 2025, and the area of degraded grasslands increased by 26%. Compared with spatial targeting of PES without considering grassland degradation risk, PES spatial targeting that considered grassland degradation risk was significantly different (the overlap area accounted for only 75%, 82%, and 94% of the PES area within 25%, 50%, and 75% of the total protection cost budget). When the grassland degradation risk was considered as a targeting criterion, PES efficiency increased by 154%, 116%, 124%, and 99%, respectively, within 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the total protection cost budget. Our results demonstrate that considering grassland degradation risk in the spatial targeting of PES increases efficiency because it helps to target areas with greater environmental benefits.

Everything Stays the Same while Everything Changes

Everything Stays the Same while Everything Changes

Central and Decentral Aspects of Land Use: Optimizing Public Finance and Payments for Nature in Space by Control Theory

Payments for eco-system services and nature (words are used synonymously) cannot be treated independently from spatial outlays. We adopt a modified “von Thünen” framework and ask for optimal land allocation in space in case of land rent change and regional preference. Yet, our approach is not circular; rather, we see provision of nature along transport routes (stretches, i.e. within a segment or wedge of circle) and ask whether nature (conservation) should be closer to cities or in the periphery; i.e. in terms of priorities, which are planning variables, nature is reckoned as integrated in farming instead of being a segregated entity. For the conflict of amenities from nature (usually wished closer to cities because of lesser transport costs for citizens) vs. provision at the periphery (because of lower opportunity costs), we develop a model which optionally foresees both nature along cities and in peripheral areas. Hereby, we work on the explicit question of land distribution between the two options in space. Our planning approach optimizes nature shares along a gradient from urban to peripheral areas. Further, we include land price dynamics, in general already very pronounced today in intensively used landscapes around cities, and reference to the situation that land prices close to cities are usually quite a bit higher than in periphery. This requests larger payments, inflicted on overall efficacy of programs. As nature provision conflicts with food provision and provate land use, models should also comprise food needs of cities. Yet, we reckon spatial opportunity costs and costs are minimized. Benefits in space for citizens are also spatially distributed. We suggest using control theory in order to attain a comprehensive analysis for and answer to regional priority setting. Archetypally, an integrated vs. a segregated nature provision concept is pursued; nature becomes relatively arranged in a mixed landscape, and farmers receive payments differently.

Shadow prices and abatement cost of soil erosion in Shaanxi Province, China: Convex expectile regression approach

Since 1999, the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP) in China, regarded as one of the largest payments for ecosystem services (PES) programs worldwide, was carried out for the alleviation of soil erosion. The high economic cost of the SLCP has attracted considerable attention to its ecological and economic effects during the past decades. However, reliable evidence about abatement alternatives and abatement costs of soil erosion remains scant. Using panel data of 83 counties observed in Shaanxi Province from 2000 to 2015, the marginal abatement cost (MAC) of soil erosion is accurately evaluated by a directional distance function with convex expectile regression. Besides, we explore how external variables affect shadow prices and the choice of abatement solutions. Our main findings are the following: First, this novel data-driven approach could alleviate the bias from the interference of noise and inefficiency; second, incorporating the investment of the SLCP into the production process allows to find the most cost-efficient abatement solution from both the input side (i.e., increasing the SLCP investment) and the output side (i.e., downscaling the primary industry or downscaling the non-primary industries); third, the temporal-spatial distribution of abatement costs shows that the abatement potential from the SLCP has shrunk gradually, which implies that there might be cost-inefficiency in some counties if the SLCP continues; finally, we recognize that natural conditions, like wind speed and vegetation quality, could influence the input-side abatement cost and output-side abatement cost differently. These results have profound policy implications, asking for more cost-efficient abatement strategies in the future.

The Role of Spatial Information in Peri-Urban Ecosystem Service Valuation and Policy Investment Preferences

The supply of ecosystem services and the benefits that peri-urban areas provide to society are increasingly being modeled and studied using various ecological, environmental, social, and economic approaches. Nevertheless, the different types and levels of demand, preferences, or values for ecosystem services that different human beneficiaries have, often require information and econometric methods to account for human awareness or knowledge of the spatial underpinnings behind these processes, services, and benefits. Specifically, spatial information regarding the location of an ecosystem, its functions, and its services can play an important role in the value and support for policies affecting conservation of peri-urban ecosystems such as payments for ecosystem service (PES) programs. Such PES programs are policy instruments that promote the use of ecosystem services for resources management and conservation objectives. Therefore, to better address this understudied aspect in the landscape ecology and peri-urban ecosystem services modeling literature, we used an online, interactive, spatially explicit survey (n = 2359) in Bogotá, Colombia to evaluate the role of spatial information on investment and policy preferences for such programs. Using an econometric approach to account for respondents’ spatial literacy (i.e., spatial information) of peri-urban ecosystem services, we analyzed how knowledge of space affected an individual’s choices related to ecosystem services and the economic value of environmental and conservation policies. We found that, as spatial literacy increased, respondents were more likely to prefer that government invest in regulating ecosystem services, specifically water resources, and less likely to prefer investing in other ecosystem services. Although spatial literacy did not necessarily affect respondent’s actual willingness to pay (WTP) for these policies in the form of monthly monetary payments, it did influence the types of programs respondents cared about and the magnitude of resources they were willing to invest. Our findings suggested that increasing spatial literacy would change preferences for government spending but not an individuals’ WTP in contexts such as peri-urban areas and PES programs. Results could be used by landscape ecologists, conservation biologists, natural resource scientists, and environmental/ecological economists to better understand and design more efficient education, conservation, and management strategies to increase public engagement in peri-urban contexts.

Estimating residents' WTP for ecosystem services improvement in a payments for ecosystem services (PES) program: A choice experiment approach

Conservation programs help mitigate the detrimental effects on ecosystems and ecosystem services (ES). However, continuous financial support is essential for their sustainability. Therefore, sustainable financing mechanisms such as Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) are developed. Nevertheless, assessing whether substantial support could be obtained from stakeholders is critical in establishing a PES. This study evaluated the feasibility of establishing a PES by estimating the potential community benefits from ES improvement using a choice modeling approach.The study surveyed 1560 residents of South Carolina to elicit their monthly willingness-to-pay (WTP) for ES improvement. The findings revealed varying WTP estimates depending on the type of intervention, regional location of the residences, and priority ES for improvement. In terms of water quality improvement, the estimated mean WTP ranged from $0 to $3.00. On the other hand, for wildlife habitat improvement, the mean WTP ranged from $0 to $6.39. Finally, for an increase in water supply, only residents from the Upstate region indicated that they are willing with a mean WTP of $0.31. Overall, the community benefits are estimated to reach $4.6 million to $6.2 million monthly, showing that PES is a promising program that could provide a substantial source to support conservation programs.