Pay Gap Research Articles

THE FEMTEXT- A GENDERED PERSPECTIVE OF AI

Sustainable development, as described by the Brundtland Report, involves catering to contemporary needs without impairing future generations' ability to satisfy their own. This principle is not just theoretical; it has pressing practical implications across social, economic, and environmental realms, all of which need considerable attention. Gender Equality is one of these crucial aspects. Although Artificial Intelligence is increasingly being spotlighted by countries and respected international organizations like the United Nations, UNICEF, and UNESCO, the connections between AI, Gender, and Sustainable Development are seldom discussed. Furthermore, the literature rarely addresses the aspects of education and the Gender Pay gap within this framework. This paper aims to provide a succinct depiction of the benefits and limitations of AI in promoting Gender Equality. Additionally, the research explores the importance of AI in addressing the Gender pay gap and its potential impact on achieving SDG 8 by 2030. What sets this paper apart is its consideration of the behavioral dimension, specifically examining the involvement of men in advancing Gender Equality, acknowledging their long-standing societal privileges. KEYWORDS: Gender Equality, Artificial Intelligence, Education, Sustainable Development Goals, Pay Gap

Double negative effects on the wages of ethnic minority women: evidence from China

ABSTRACT Using data from the Chinese Household Income Project surveys of 2002, 2013, and 2018 and employing decomposition methods, this study is the first to examine the impact of the double negative effect on the wages of ethnic minority women in urban China. Three key conclusions emerge. First, the results indicate the presence of a double negative effect, with the gender wage gap effect being more pronounced than the ethnicity wage gap effect. This suggests that discrimination against women is the primary factor contributing to the formation of the wage gaps. Second, the decomposition results on wage distribution suggest that the return effect on both ethnicity and gender wage gaps is greater for the high-wage group than for the low- and medium-wage groups, suggesting workplace discrimination may be much more severe for the high-wage group. Third, the wage gaps and determinants of their formation differ by heterogenous ethnic minority groups.

What explains the recent increase of gender wage gap in China?

AbstractThis paper investigates the changes of gender wage gap in urban and rural areas and examines the effect of wage structure and unobserved characteristics on the gap by using the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) survey in 2013 and 2018. We document a significant increase of the gender wage gap in both areas as well as among rural‐to‐urban migrants. By applying Katz and Murphy's supply‐demand framework, we find that the demand has shifted toward younger, more educated workers, and the demand for male workers is higher than that for female workers during the time. The Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition of gender wage gap suggests that factors, such as occupation, parenthood status, and industry, have contributed to the expansion of wage gap. Furthermore, the Juhn–Murphy–Pierce decomposition of the change in gender wage gap implies that the expansion is owing to rising discrimination against females and gender‐specific factors such as observed and unobserved characteristics that have performed unfavorably for females.

Gender wage gap by university major: an empirical assessment using Spanish data

Gender wage gap by university major: an empirical assessment using Spanish data

How do Capital Market Pressures Affect Pay Structures? Evidence Based on Short Selling and Firms’ Internal Pay Gaps

This paper examines the relationship between short selling and internal pay gaps of listed companies, and explores how short selling affects the company's pay structure. To this end, this paper utilizes the data of Chinese A-share listed companies from 2008 to 2022, and adopts the staggered-DID method, and finds that short selling significantly increases the internal pay gaps of firms subject to the short selling mechanism, but gaps are instead narrowed in SOEs and technology-intensive firms. The mechanism analysis suggests that short selling widens pay gaps by increasing the demand for highly educated managers and their compensation for job risk. The result of this paper provides a new perspective for understanding the socio-economic effects of capital market policies, as well as a rationale for formulating fair and reasonable pay policies.

Improving the reliability of a nonprobability web survey: application to measuring gender pay gap

ABSTRACT Nonprobability web surveys suffer from selection and coverage biases and are generally not representative of the target population. To carry out statistical modelling in a nonprobability web survey, we explore different methods of statistical adjustments to compensate for biases through the use of a probability-based reference sample. We also show that we need to account for these biases when imputing missing data. The methods for statistical adjustments include propensity score weighting with post-stratification and a technique called sample matching. For the substantive study, we use a nonprobability online web-survey taken from the WageIndicator (WI) programme (www.wageindicator.org) to estimate the gender pay gap (GPG) using the 2016 WI survey data from the Netherlands. We use the 2016 EU-SILC data as the probability-based reference sample. Based on the study of GPG, we show that using propensity score weighting with post-stratification outperforms sample matching with respect to compensating for biases and improves the outcome of the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition model in terms of the degree of similarity relative to patterns found in representative probability samples in the Netherlands.

Spatial disparities across labour markets

Abstract We consider disparities across local labour markets in Great Britain. Disparities in wages and employment rates are large and persistent, although smaller than 20 years ago. These disparities largely reflect the concentration of high-skilled workers, who would have better labour market outcomes wherever they live. This concentration is driven by differences in the demand for, and supply of, skills and the self-reinforcing interaction between the two, which is particularly pronounced in the highest-wage areas and at the upper end of the wage distribution. The highest-paid jobs are concentrated in London and a handful of other areas and wage disparities are mostly driven by the higher-paid. Places that offer higher earnings also have higher rents, which may entirely offset gains in earnings. Consistent with this, people in higher-paid places are no happier than those in lower-paid places.

Big data and inter-firm wage disparities: theory and evidence from China

Big data and inter-firm wage disparities: theory and evidence from China

Competition, confidence and gender: Shifting the focus from the overconfident to the realistic

The gender gap in competitiveness is argued to explain gender differences in later life outcomes, including career choices and the gender wage gap. In experimental settings, a prevalent explanation attributes this gap to males being more (over)confident than females (we call this the compositional channel). While our lab-in-the-field study using data from students in 53 classrooms (N> 1000) reproduces this finding, it also uncovers a second, potentially more impactful channel of confidence contributing to the gender gap in competitiveness (the preference channel). To disentangle the two channels, we propose a more precise measure of confidence based on whether the subjects’ believed performance rank exceeds, coincides with or falls short of their actual performance in a real-effort task. We label categories of this Guessed - Actual Performance (GAP) difference as overconfident, realistic or underconfident, respectively. Surprisingly, there is no gender difference in competitiveness within the over- and underconfident subgroups, while a significant gender gap exists among the realistic. So, even if both genders had the same level of confidence, a persistent gender gap in preference (or taste) for competition would remain in the realistic group. This finding is robust across all specifications, challenging previous theories about the overconfidence of men being the main driver of the relationship between confidence and the gender gap in competition.

Exploring Historical Patterns of Urban Migration in Pakistan: Origins and Drivers

This study explores the historical patterns and antecedents of urban migration in Pakistan, focusing on the interaction of demographic, economic, and environmental factors. Economic factors like wage disparities, job opportunities, and service access significantly influence migration. Rapid urbanization and inadequate infrastructure make it difficult to house and integrate migrants, exacerbating existing housing, transportation, and healthcare issues. The study advocates for evidence-based policymaking, utilizing descriptive analysis, focusing on sustainable urban development, migrant welfare, and inclusive growth. This study has identified various economic, demographic, and environmental factors that have contributed to rapid urbanization, such as migration for healthcare, education, and services. Still, low economic growth and rapid population growth lead to higher unemployment, low wages, natural disasters, and political instability. It emphasizes prioritizing rural development, improving urban infrastructure, and increasing disaster resilience. Proposals call for regional cooperation and climate change adaptation strategies to address cross-border migration challenges.

Bibliometric Analysis of Key Findings in Studies on Gender Disparities in Education and Employment

This study employs bibliometric analysis to explore the evolving landscape of research on gender disparities in education and employment from 1985 to 2024. Utilizing VOSviewer for data visualization, we identified key thematic clusters, analyzed trends over years, and pinpointed less-researched areas that present opportunities for further inquiry. Our findings revealed that while traditional topics like wage disparities and labor market participation continue to dominate the research, newer areas such as the impact of global events (e.g., COVID-19) and intersectional identities on gender inequalities are gaining prominence. Notably, the analysis highlighted significant gaps in research related to poverty, household dynamics, and health care's role in gender disparities. These findings suggest a need for a more nuanced exploration of how gender disparities affect various socioeconomic outcomes and call for targeted research efforts in underexplored areas to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the issues at hand.

The intersection between traditional roles and a fragmented labor market: a propensity score matching analysis of gender wage gap in Ecuador

PurposeThis study aims at estimating the gender wage gap in Ecuador, and its evolution over the last decade and a half, exploring its heterogeneity through different working conditions (formal/informal, full employment/underemployment, short term/long term and tenure/no tenure) and workers personal characteristics (education level; age and children).Design/methodology/approachPropensity score matching (PSM) and coarsened exact matching (CEM) are used to examine the gender pay inequality of wage earners in Ecuador, using the National Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment Survey (ENEMDU) data set from 2007 to 2022.FindingsResults show a persistent gender pay gap, evidencing a significant heterogeneity through the different dimensions taken into account, in terms of working conditions and workers personal characteristics. The evolution of the pay gap during the years analyzed hardly shows any reduction of differences in earnings between men and women; on the contrary, women exposure to precarious and unregulated jobs seems to be increasing wage inequality.Practical implicationsThe results make the case for active policies oriented not only at containing the negative effects of the traditional division of labor within the family but also at improving labor law enforcement, mitigating informality and workers rapid turnover.Originality/valueThis study is one of the few that use matching techniques to study the gender wage gap and the first in Ecuador; the time span taken into account is larger than previous studies, allowing a medium-long run perspective across different economic phases.

Gender income differences among general practitioners with compulsory services in early career stage in underdeveloped areas: evidence from a prospective cohort study in China

BackgroundGender equality and the gender income gap in medicine are long-standing global problems. Although gender-related differences have been widely studied in developed countries, they remain unclear in underdeveloped regions. In 2010, China initiated a national compulsory service program (CSP) to train qualified general practitioners in rural and remote areas. This study aimed to evaluate gender income differences for early career CSP and non-CSP (NCSP) graduates in underdeveloped areas.MethodsA cohort study was conducted with 3620 CSP and NCSP graduates from four medical universities in Central and Western China. Baseline surveys and six follow-up surveys were conducted between 2015 and 2022. Incomes, including monthly mean income and proportion of performance-based income, were measured as the key outcome variables. Multivariate linear regression models were used to identify the gender income gap.ResultsNCSP graduates had higher average monthly incomes than CSP graduates. In the seventh year after graduation, the average monthly income for NCSP graduates was 7859 CNY while was 5379 CNY for CSP graduates. After controlling for demographic characteristics, the gender monthly income gap for CSP graduates was expanded from the fourth year (3.0%) to the sixth year (5.9%) after graduation, and that for NCSP graduates was expanded from the fifth year (11.9%) to the seventh year (16.3%) after graduation. Regarding performance-based income, it was 58.9% for NCSP graduates and 45.8% for CSP graduates in the seventh year after graduation. After controlling for performance-based income proportion, the gender income gap was reduced from 5.9 to 4.0% in the sixth year after graduation for CSP graduates, and from 16.3 to 14.4% for NCSP graduates in the seventh year after graduation.ConclusionAn extensive and ever-increasing gender income gap exists among young doctors in the early stages of their careers in underdeveloped areas of China. The high proportion of performance-based income among men is one of the main explanations for the observed difference. A more explicit compensation system must be established to enhance support for female health workers.

The subway and the gender wage gap

We estimate the impacts of accessing the subway network on the gender wage gap in China. The results suggest that the subway increases the wages of females relative to males. Heterogeneity estimations indicate that the subway has a more significant impact in regions with mature subway networks, as well as in suburban areas. The findings also demonstrate that the subway reduces the gender wage gap among low-skilled groups, married households, and households with fewer vehicles. Analysis of the mechanisms reveals that the effects are driven by the labour demand side, as subways boosts the entry of firms that are intensive in employing low-skilled females.

Income gap between male and female psychiatric nurses in China: A national survey.

To investigate gender differences in the actual and expected income among psychiatric nurses in China. Although studies have shown that male nurses earn more than female nurses in other countries, there are no published data regarding gender income differences among psychiatric nurses in China. We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 41 representative psychiatric hospitals in China. Demographic, income, and job-related data were analyzed using the inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) based on the propensity score. The sample included 9256 psychiatric nurses, and nearly four-fifths (79.3%) were female. Males earned slightly higher average monthly incomes than female nurses, while initial analysis showed no significant overall gender income difference (p>0.05). Notably, most participants (92.5%) desired an income increase of at least 10%, with over half (56.2%) expressing significant dissatisfaction with their current income. After adjustment using propensity score combined with IPTW, females in the junior and mid-level groups had significantly lower income than their male counterparts (all p<0.01), despite having different night shift patterns. However, there were no significant gender differences in actual or expected income among senior-level psychiatric nurses (p>0.05). A majority of psychiatric nurses in China express dissatisfaction with their current incomes and expect higher incomes. Male nurses earned significantly more than female nurses in the junior and mid-level professional groups, potentially due to their differences in night shifts. Policymakers and hospital administrators should optimize the income structures of nurses and develop targeted policies to address the gender income gap. Improving nurse income has the potential to enhance motivation and satisfaction within the profession.

Gender earning gap on digital platforms: The Airbnb case

Contrary to initial expectations derived from traditional labor market theories, which predicted digital platforms would narrow the gender earnings gap, recent studies suggest this gap remains persistent. This research focuses on Airbnb, where trust and hospitality, often perceived as favoring female hosts, play a critical role. Using data from Airbnb in Tel-Aviv and supported by experimental evidence, we find a surprising result: the gender earnings gap is not merely reduced on Airbnb but is reversed, with female hosts earning more than their male counterparts. This reversal is attributed to the market mechanism of Airbnb, combined with a guest preference for female hosts. These findings offer a crucial insight: the influence of information and communication technology (ICT) on women’s empowerment is not straightforward or universal. Instead, it is influenced by the specific characteristics and mechanisms of each digital platform.

Trade unions and the gender wage gap: evidence from China

ABSTRACT While it is assumed that trade unions may influence the gender wage gap, evidence is scarce on this issue. This study investigates the issue in China using national longitudinal survey data from 2010 to 2020. The results reveal that the union wage premium is greater for women than for men. Furthermore, the union wage premium is more beneficial for women in the public sector compared to the private sector. The gender disparity in endowment return effect among non-union members is the primary factor contributing to the formation of the gender wage gap in both public and private sectors, with the effect being more pronounced in the public sector. Additionally, the gender disparity in unionism reduces the gender wage gap in the public sector while widening the wage gap in the private sector.

К вопросу о труде и образовании женщин на страницах журналов «Женский вестник» и «Женщина и война» в конце XIX – начале XX в.

Women’s right to work and education was formed under the influence of life realities and socio-political events of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Women’s magazines served as a conduit for conveying the political interests of women, where they could learn about the prevalent issue of inequality in society and potential avenues for addressing it. These publications featured stories of women’s oppression in employment, wage disparities, and admission to higher educational institutions. Prior to the 1917 revolution, attitudes towards female labor in Russian society underwent numerous transformations, with working alongside men becoming a vital necessity for women. The exigencies of the First World War greatly contributed to the demand for labor, prompting many women to join the workforce and serve on the front lines as nurses and volunteers, fulfilling their duty to the Motherland. In conclusion, the narrative of women’s rights to labor and education in late Imperial Russia reflects a complex interplay of societal shifts and historical contingencies. As we reflect on this historical trajectory, it is imperative to recognize the ongoing struggle for gender equality and the enduring legacy of women’s activism in shaping the contours of society.

Micro-analysis of earnings and its determinants in eastern cape province of South Africa

Earnings disparities in South Africa, and specifically the Eastern Cape region are influenced by a complex interplay of historical, socio-economic, and demographic factors. Despite significant progress since the end of apartheid, persistent disparities in earnings continue to raise questions about the effectiveness of policies aimed at reducing inequality and promoting equitable social system. Individual-level dataset from the 2021 South African general household survey were subjected to exploratory analysis, while Heckman selection model was used to investigate the determinants of earnings disparities in the study area. The results showed that majority of the population are not working for a wage, commission or salary, which also pointed to the gravity of unemployment situation in the area of study. Most of the working population (both male and female) are lowest earners (R ≤ 10,000), and this also cuts across all age-group categories. Majority of working population have no formal education, are drop out, or have less than grade-12 certificate, and very few working populations with higher education status were found in the moderate and relatively high earnings categories. While many of the working population are engaged in the informal sector, those in the formal sector are in the lowest earners group. Compared to any other race, the Black African group constituted the majority of non-wage earners, and most in this group were found in the lowest earners group. Some of the working population who were beneficiaries of social grants and medical aids scheme were found in the lowest, low, and moderate earnings categories. The findings significantly isolated the earnings-effect of age, marital status, gender, race, education, geographic indicators, employment sector, and index of health conditions and disabilities. The study recommends interventions addressing racial, gender, and geographic wage gaps, while also emphasizing the importance of equitable access to education, health infrastructure, and skills development.

Women retirement age reform: evidence from Israel

ABSTRACT This article examines the current women’s retirement age reform in Israel that raised their retirement age from 62 to 65, suggesting that high-income salaried women are more likely to benefit from the reform. It found that raising women’s Retirement Age (RA) alone does not improve their Replacement Rate (REP) and recommends implementing a two-stage policy reform. In the first stage, gender wage gaps should be mitigated during working-time period; in the second stage, women’s RA should be raised to the average of 63.81 years of the OECD countries. These suggestions should be adopted by policymakers in countries with low REP, such as Britain and Japan, accompanied by ensuring equal employment opportunities for relatively older women approaching RA.