Pattern Of Growth Hormone Secretion Research Articles

Characterization and Regulation of the Neonatal Growth Hormone Surge.

High neonatal growth hormone (GH) secretion has been described in several species. However, the neuroendocrine mechanisms behind this surge remain unknown. Thus, the pattern of postnatal GH secretion was investigated in mice and rats. Blood GH levels were very high on postnatal day (P)1 and progressively decreased until near zero by P17 in C57BL/6 mice without sex differences. This pattern was similar to that observed in rats, except that female rats showed higher GH levels on P1 than males. In comparison, follicle-stimulating hormone exhibited higher secretion in females during the first 3 weeks of life. Hypothalamic Sst mRNA and somatostatin neuroendocrine terminals in the median eminence were higher in P20/P21 mice than in newborns. Knockout mice for GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) receptor showed no GH surge, whereas knockdown mice for the Sst gene displayed increased neonatal GH peak. Leptin deficiency caused only minor effects on early-life GH secretion. GH receptor ablation in neurons or the entire body did not affect neonatal GH secretion, but the subsequent reduction in blood GH levels was attenuated or prevented by these genetic manipulations, respectively. This phenotype was also observed in knockout mice for the insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) receptor in GHRH neurons. Moreover, glucose-induced hyperglycemia overstimulated GH secretion in neonatal mice. In conclusion, GH surge in the first days of life is not regulated by negative feedback loops. However, neonatal GH secretion requires GHRH receptor, and is modulated by somatostatin and blood glucose levels, suggesting that this surge is controlled by hypothalamic-pituitary communication.

5162 Oral LUM-201 Restores Pulsatile Growth Hormone Secretion and Growth Response in Moderate Pediatric Growth Hormone Deficiency (PGHD): Key Discoveries from Phase 2 of OraGrowtH212 Trial

Abstract Disclosure: F. Cassorla: Consulting Fee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. R. Roman: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M.L. Johnson: Consulting Fee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A. Avila: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. G. Iñiguez: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. I. Baier: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. D. Said: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A. Bruchey: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc.. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. C. Smith: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc.. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. E. Brincks: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. J. McKew: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma. M.O. Thorner: Consulting Fee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc.. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Ammonett Pharma LLC. P. Pitukcheewanont: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma. Objectives: The primary objective was to examine the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) aspects of oral LUM-201 at doses of 1.6 and 3.2 mg/kg/d with moderate PGHD, involving frequent GH sampling for 12 hours post-administration. Using deconvolutional analysis, the study compared the GH secretion patterns before & after 6 months (m) daily administration of LUM-201. LUM-201, an investigational agonist of the growth hormone (GH) Secretagogue Receptor 1a (GHSR1a), was employed as part of a predictive enrichment marker (PEM) test to identify moderate PGHD subjects likely to respond, based on baseline insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) level >30 ng/mL & a peak GH of ≥5 ng/mL post a single 0.8 mg/kg dose of LUM-201. Methods: The OraGrowtH212 Trial, conducted at Santiago, Chile, monitors subjects until they approach their near final height. The current report focuses on data analysis at 6 and 12m, with ongoing subject follow-ups extending to 24m. This trial randomized 22 PEM+ moderate PGHD subjects into two LUM-201 dosage groups: 1.6 or 3.2 mg/kg/d. To assess GH secretion, each child was sampled every 10 min from 0800-2000h at baseline & 6m. Safety was assessed throughout the study and growth evaluated at 6 & 12m intervals. Results: At start of the study, basal GH secretion in the LUM-201 1.6mg/kg/d group (all values expressed as mean ± SD µg/kg body weight) was 0.19 ±0.09, pulsatile GH was 1.17 ± 0.66, and total GH was 1.35 ± 0.66. At 6m, each of these parameters had significantly increased to 0.36 ± 0.21, 1.8 ±0.74 and 2.2 ±0.89 respectively (p values from 0.02-0.04). Similar significant increases were seen for LUM-201 3.2mg/kg/d. Combining the data from both LUM-201 doses demonstrated that GH secretion determined by deconvolution analysis was 3.3-4.0 µg/kg/24hrs compared to 5 µg/kg/24hrs derived from published data on normal children (Zadik et al, Horm Res 1992), indicating restoration of GH secretion by LUM-201. These values are considerably less than 25-34µg/kg/d of recombinant human GH used in the treatment of PGHD. At 6m, the annualized height velocity (AHV) was 7.2cm/yr for the LUM-201 1.6mg/kg/d and 8.1cm/yr for the 3.2 mg/kg/d dose. At 12m, AHV for a subset was 6.9cm/yr for the 1.6 dose and 7.2cm/yr for the 3.2 dose. Baseline IGF-1 SDS (mean ±SD) were -1±0.63 in 1.6mg/kg/d group & -0.85±0.47 in 3.2mg/kg/d group. The change over 12m was +0.9 on 1.6 dose and +1.1 on 3.2 dose, indicating similar efficacy for IGF-1 generation. LUM-201 showed good tolerability in this study, with no observed safety concerns in adverse events (AEs), labs, and ECGs. Conclusions: At 6m LUM-201 was able to restore endogenous GH pulsatile secretion to a similar level to that seen in normal children, while normalizing serum IGF-1 concentrations. These results indicate that by restoring endogenous GH secretion, LUM-201 facilitates growth utilizing a much lower amount of GH than that provided by daily exogenous rhGH administration. Presentation: 6/3/2024

Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin (SERPINA6) Consolidates Sexual Dimorphism of Adult Rat Liver.

Produced by the liver, corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) regulates the plasma distribution and actions of glucocorticoids. A sex difference in pituitary growth hormone secretion patterns established during puberty in rats results in increased hepatic CBG production and 2-fold higher plasma corticosterone levels in females. Glucocorticoids control hepatic development and metabolic activities, and we have therefore examined how disrupting the SerpinA6 gene encoding CBG influences plasma corticosterone dynamics, as well as liver gene expression in male and female rats before and after puberty. Comparisons of corticosterone plasma clearance and hepatic uptake in adult rats, with or without CBG, indicated that CBG limits corticosterone clearance by reducing its hepatic uptake. Hepatic transcriptomic profiling revealed minor sex differences (207 differentially expressed genes) and minimal effect of CBG deficiency in 30-day-old rats before puberty. While liver transcriptomes in 60-day-old males lacking CBG remained essentially unchanged, 2710 genes were differentially expressed in wild-type female vs male livers at this age. Importantly, ∼10% of these genes lost their sexually dimorphic expression in adult females lacking CBG, including those related to cholesterol biosynthesis, inflammation, and lipid and amino acid catabolism. Another 203 genes were altered by the loss of CBG specifically in adult females, including those related to xenobiotic metabolism, circadian rhythm, and gluconeogenesis. Our findings reveal that CBG consolidates the sexual dimorphism of the rat liver initiated by sex differences in growth hormone secretion patterns and provide insight into how CBG deficiencies are linked to glucocorticoid-dependent diseases.

Prader-Willi syndrome and growth hormone therapy: exploring the precise management of hypothalamic short stature: A review

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by various clinical features linked to hypothalamic/pituitary gland abnormalities. Growth hormone deficiency is a prominent feature of PWS that results in poor linear growth and delayed development. This review discusses the evaluation and effects of growth hormone therapy (GHT) in PWS. Heterogeneity in growth hormone secretion patterns based on genotype and the potential for personalized GHT were explored. The benefits of GHT, including improvements in motor and cognitive development, growth, and body composition, are discussed in detail. Safety considerations for GHT initiation and response to GHT in adults with PWS are discussed, along with ongoing debates regarding the efficacy and safety. Although controversies persist, an evolving understanding of the long-term effects and safety of GHT underscores the need for comprehensive research in this field.

Fasting and prolonged food restriction differentially affect GH secretion independently of GH receptor signaling in AgRP neurons.

Growth hormone (GH) receptor (GHR) is abundantly expressed in neurons that co-release the agouti-related protein (AgRP) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARH). Since ARHAgRP/NPY neurons regulate several hypothalamic-pituitary-endocrine axes, this neuronal population possibly modulates GH secretion via a negative feedback loop, particularly during food restriction, when ARHAgRP/NPY neurons are highly active. The present study aims to determine the importance of GHR signaling in ARHAgRP/NPY neurons on the pattern of GH secretion in fed and food-deprived male mice. Additionally, we compared the effect of two distinct situations of food deprivation: 16 h of fasting or four days of food restriction (40% of usual food intake). Overnight fasting strongly suppressed both basal and pulsatile GH secretion. Animals lacking GHR in ARHAgRP/NPY neurons (AgRP∆GHR mice) did not exhibit differences in GH secretion either in the fed or fasted state, compared to control mice. In contrast, four days of food restriction increased GH pulse frequency, basal GH secretion, and pulse irregularity/complexity (measured by sample entropy), whereas pulsatile GH secretion was not affected in both control and AgRP∆GHR mice. Hypothalamic Ghrh mRNA levels were unaffected by fasting or food restriction, but Sst expression increased in acutely fasted mice, but decreased after prolonged food restriction in both control and AgRP∆GHR mice. Our findings indicate that short-term fasting and prolonged food restriction differentially affect the pattern of GH secretion, independently of GHR signaling in ARHAgRP/NPY neurons.

Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Has a Wide Spectrum of Growth Hormone Excess.

Overgrowth due to growth hormone (GH) excess affects approximately 10% of patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) and optic pathway glioma (OPG). Our aim is to describe the clinical, biochemical, pathological, and genetic features of GH excess in a retrospective case series of 10 children and adults with NF1 referred to a tertiary care clinical research center. Six children (median age = 4 years, range of 3–5 years), one 14-year-old adolescent, and three adults (median age = 42 years, range of 29–52 years) were diagnosed with NF1 and GH excess. GH excess was confirmed by the failure to suppress GH (<1 ng/mL) on oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT, n = 9) and frequent overnight sampling of GH levels (n = 6). Genetic testing was ascertained through targeted or whole-exome sequencing (n = 9). Five patients (all children) had an OPG without any pituitary abnormality, three patients (one adolescent and two adults) had a pituitary lesion (two tumors, one suggestive hyperplasia) without an OPG, and two patients (one child and one adult) had a pituitary lesion (a pituitary tumor and suggestive hyperplasia, respectively) with a concomitant OPG. The serial overnight sampling of GH levels in six patients revealed abnormal overnight GH profiling. Two adult patients had a voluminous pituitary gland on pituitary imaging. One pituitary tumor from an adolescent patient who harbored a germline heterozygous p.Gln514Pro NF1 variant stained positive for GH and prolactin. One child who harbored a heterozygous truncating variant in exon 46 of NF1 had an OPG that, when compared to normal optic nerves, stained strongly for GPR101, an orphan G protein-coupled receptor causing GH excess in X-linked acrogigantism. We describe a series of patients with GH excess and NF1. Our findings show the variability in patterns of serial overnight GH secretion, somatotroph tumor or hyperplasia in some cases of NF1 and GH excess. Further studies are required to ascertain the link between NF1, GH excess and GPR101, which may aid in the characterization of the molecular underpinning of GH excess in NF1.

Role of pulsatile growth hormone (GH) secretion in the regulation of lipolysis in fasting humans

BackgroundThe increase in growth hormone (GH) secretion during a prolonged fast stimulates lipolytic rate, thereby augmenting the mobilization of endogenous energy at a time when fuel availability is very low.Study aimTo identify the specific component of GH secretory pattern responsible for the stimulation of lipolytic rate during fasting in humans.Study protocolWe measured lipolytic rate (using stable isotope dilution technique) after an overnight fast in 15 young, healthy, non-obese subjects (11 men and 4 women), and again on four separate occasions after a 59 h fast. These four prolonged fasting trials differed only by the contents of an infusion solution provided throughout the 59 h fasting period. Subjects were infused either with normal saline (“Control”; n = 15) or with graded doses of a GH Releasing Hormone Receptor Antagonist (GHRHa):10 μg/kg/h (“High”; n = 15), 1 μg /kg/h (“Medium”; n = 8), or 0.5 μg /kg/h (“Low”; n = 6).ResultsAs expected, the 59 h fast completely suppressed plasma insulin levels and markedly increased endogenous GH concentrations (12 h vs 59 h Fast; p = 0.0044). Administration of GHRHa induced dose-dependent reduction in GH concentrations in response to the 59 h fast (p < 0.05). We found a strong correlation between the rate of lipolysis and GH mean peak amplitude (R = 0.471; p = 0.0019), and total GH pulse area under the curve (AUC) (R = 0.49; p = 0.0015), but not the GH peak frequency (R = 0.044; p = 0.8) or interpulse GH concentrations (R = 0.25; p = 0.115).ConclusionDuring prolonged fasting (i.e., 2–3 days), when insulin secretion is abolished, the pulsatile component of GH secretion becomes a key metabolic regulator of the increase in lipolytic rate.

Sepsis as a Pan-Endocrine Illness-Endocrine Disorders in Septic Patients.

Sepsis is defined as “life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection”. One of the elements of dysregulated host response is an endocrine system disorder. Changes in its functioning in the course of sepsis affect almost all hormonal axes. In sepsis, a function disturbance of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis has been described, in the range of which the most important seems to be hypercortisolemia in the acute phase. Imbalance in the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis is also described. The most typical manifestation is a triiodothyronine concentration decrease and reverse triiodothyronine concentration increase. In the somatotropic axis, a change in the secretion pattern of growth hormone and peripheral resistance to this hormone has been described. In the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, the reduction in testosterone concentration in men and the stress-induced “hypothalamic amenorrhea” in women have been described. Catecholamine and β-adrenergic stimulation disorders have also been reported. Disorders in the endocrine system are part of the “dysregulated host response to infection”. They may also affect other components of this dysregulated response, such as metabolism. Hormonal changes occurring in the course of sepsis require further research, not only in order to explore their potential significance in therapy, but also due to their promising prognostic value.

Acute sleep deprivation leads to growth hormone (GH) resistance in rats

Sleep is an essential physiological process that is required by all higher animals. Sleep has many important physiological functions. Previous studies have focused on the relationship between sleep and growth hormone secretion patterns. However, to date, whether sleep affects the biological activities of GH remains unclear. Here, we investigated this issue by evaluating the growth hormone receptor (GHR)-mediated intracellular signalling pathway in a sleep-deprived rat model. The results showed that GH’s signalling ability is decreased in an acute sleep deprivation rat model. JAK2-STAT signalling was decreased significantly compared to that in control rats. We further analysed the possible molecular mechanism of GH signal inhibition in sleep-deprived rats. The results showed that the protein expression levels of SOCS3 (suppressors of cytokine signalling 3, which functions as the negative regulatory molecule of GH’s signalling) increased; however, other negative regulatory proteins, such as protein phosphatase (PTP1B), did not change. In addition, acute sleep deprivation results in a significant increase in serum FFA (free fatty acid) level, which is also one of the factors contributing to GH inhibition. These findings suggest that GH signal resistance may be caused by a combination of factors. This study could serve as an important reference for related studies on the effect of sleep deprivation on endocrine systems.

Sex-biased genetic programs in liver metabolism and liver fibrosis are controlled by EZH1 and EZH2.

Sex differences in the incidence and progression of many liver diseases, including liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, are associated with sex-biased hepatic expression of hundreds of genes. This sexual dimorphism is largely determined by the sex-specific pattern of pituitary growth hormone secretion, which controls a transcriptional regulatory network operative in the context of sex-biased and growth hormone-regulated chromatin states. Histone H3K27-trimethylation yields a major sex-biased repressive chromatin mark deposited at many strongly female-biased genes in male mouse liver, but not at male-biased genes in female liver, and is catalyzed by polycomb repressive complex-2 through its homologous catalytic subunits, Ezh1 and Ezh2. Here, we used Ezh1-knockout mice with a hepatocyte-specific knockout of Ezh2 to investigate the sex bias of liver H3K27-trimethylation and its functional role in regulating sex-differences in the liver. Combined hepatic Ezh1/Ezh2 deficiency led to a significant loss of sex-biased gene expression, particularly in male liver, where many female-biased genes were increased in expression while male-biased genes showed decreased expression. The associated loss of H3K27me3 marks, and increases in the active enhancer marks H3K27ac and H3K4me1, were also more pronounced in male liver. Further, Ezh1/Ezh2 deficiency in male liver, and to a lesser extent in female liver, led to up regulation of many genes linked to liver fibrosis and liver cancer, which may contribute to the observed liver pathologies and the increased sensitivity of these mice to hepatotoxin exposure. Thus, Ezh1/Ezh2-catalyzed H3K27-trimethyation regulates sex-dependent genetic programs in liver metabolism and liver fibrosis through its sex-dependent effects on the epigenome, and may thereby determine the sex-bias in liver disease susceptibility.

Tyrosine Hydroxylase Neurons Regulate Growth Hormone Secretion via Short-Loop Negative Feedback.

Classical studies suggest that growth hormone (GH) secretion is controlled by negative-feedback loops mediated by GH-releasing hormone (GHRH)- or somatostatin-expressing neurons. Catecholamines are known to alter GH secretion and neurons expressing TH are located in several brain areas containing GH-responsive cells. However, whether TH-expressing neurons are required to regulate GH secretion via negative-feedback mechanisms is unknown. In the present study, we showed that between 50% and 90% of TH-expressing neurons in the periventricular, paraventricular, and arcuate hypothalamic nuclei and locus ceruleus of mice exhibited STAT5 phosphorylation (pSTAT5) after an acute GH injection. Ablation of GH receptor (GHR) from TH cells or in the entire brain markedly increased GH pulse secretion and body growth in both male and female mice. In contrast, GHR ablation in cells that express the dopamine transporter (DAT) or dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH; marker of noradrenergic/adrenergic cells) did not affect body growth. Nevertheless, less than 50% of TH-expressing neurons in the hypothalamus were found to express DAT. Ablation of GHR in TH cells increased the hypothalamic expression of Ghrh mRNA, although very few GHRH neurons were found to coexpress TH- and GH-induced pSTAT5. In summary, TH neurons that do not express DAT or DBH are required for the autoregulation of GH secretion via a negative-feedback loop. Our findings revealed a critical and previously unidentified group of catecholaminergic interneurons that are apt to sense changes in GH levels and regulate the somatotropic axis in mice.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Textbooks indicate until now that the pulsatile pattern of growth hormone (GH) secretion is primarily controlled by GH-releasing hormone and somatostatin neurons. The regulation of GH secretion relies on the ability of these cells to sense changes in circulating GH levels to adjust pituitary GH secretion within a narrow physiological range. However, our study identifies a specific population of tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing neurons that is critical to autoregulate GH secretion via a negative-feedback loop. The lack of this mechanism in transgenic mice results in aberrant GH secretion and body growth. Since GH plays a key role in cell proliferation, body growth, and metabolism, our findings provide a major advance to understand how the brain regulates the somatotropic axis.

Sex-Biased lncRNAs Inversely Correlate With Sex-Opposite Gene Coexpression Networks in Diversity Outbred Mouse Liver.

Sex differences in liver gene expression are determined by pituitary growth hormone secretion patterns, which regulate sex-dependent liver transcription factors and establish sex-specific chromatin states. Hypophysectomy (hypox) identifies two major classes of liver sex-biased genes, defined by their sex-dependent positive or negative responses to pituitary hormone ablation. However, the mechanisms that underlie each hypox-response class are unknown. We sought to discover candidate, regulatory, long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) controlling responsiveness to hypox. We characterized gene structures and expression patterns for 15,558 mouse liver-expressed lncRNAs, including many sex-specific lncRNAs regulated during postnatal development or subject to circadian regulation. Using the high natural allelic variance of Diversity Outbred (DO) mice, we discovered tightly coexpressed clusters of sex-specific protein-coding genes (gene modules) in male and female DO liver. Remarkably, many gene modules were strongly enriched for sex-specific genes within a single hypox-response class, indicating that the genetic heterogeneity of DO mice encompasses responsiveness to hypox. Moreover, several distant gene modules were enriched for gene subsets of the same hypox-response class, highlighting the complex regulation of hypox-responsiveness. Finally, we identified eight sex-specific lncRNAs with strong negative regulatory potential, as indicated by their strong negative correlation of expression across DO mouse livers with that of protein-coding gene modules enriched for genes of the opposite sex bias and inverse hypox-response class. These findings reveal an important role for genetic factors in regulating responsiveness to hypox, and present testable hypotheses for the roles of sex-biased liver lncRNAs in controlling the sex-bias of liver gene expression.

Smooth Muscle-Specific BCL6+/- Knockout Abrogates Sex Bias in Chronic Hypoxia-Induced Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension in Mice.

The “estrogen paradox” in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) refers to observations that while there is a higher incidence of idiopathic PAH in women, rodent models of PAH show male dominance and estrogens are protective. To explain these differences, we previously proposed the neuroendocrine-STAT5-BCL6 hypothesis anchored in the sex-biased and species-specific patterns of growth hormone (GH) secretion by the pituitary, the targeting of the hypothalamus by estrogens to feminize GH secretion patterns, and the role of the transcription factors STAT5a/b and BCL6 as downstream mediators of this patterned GH-driven sex bias. As a test of this hypothesis, we previously reported that vascular smooth muscle cell- (SMC-) specific deletion of the STAT5a/b locus abrogated the male-dominant sex bias in the chronic hypoxia model of PAH in mice. In the present study, we confirmed reduced BCL6 expression in pulmonary arterial (PA) segments in both male and female SMC:STAT5a/b−/− mice. In order to test the proposed contribution of BCL6 to sex bias in PAH, we developed mice with SMC-specific deletion of BCL6+/− by crossing SM22α-Cre mice with BCL6-floxed mice and investigated sex bias in these mutant mice in the chronic hypoxia model of PAH. We observed that the male-bias observed in wild-type- (wt-) SM22α-Cre-positive mice was abrogated in the SMC:BCL6+/− knockouts—both males and females showed equivalent enhancement of indices of PAH. The new data confirm BCL6 as a contributor to the sex-bias phenotype observed in hypoxic PAH in mice and support the neuroendocrine-STAT5-BCL6 hypothesis of sex bias in this experimental model of vascular disease.

Molecular basis of growth hormone daily mRNA and protein synthesis in rats

AimsDaily and seasonal rhythms coordinate the endocrine and metabolic functions. The pituitary gland is the master regulator of several endocrine activities, and its function is classically regulated by endocrine signals from its target glands as well as from the hypothalamus. The growth hormone (GH) produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary presents a pulsatile secretion throughout the 24-hour cycle. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating the daily pattern of GH secretion are still unclear. Herein we investigated whether circadian GH mRNA and protein synthesis is modulated by acute adjustments in the stability and expression of GH mRNA. Main methodsGH mRNA and protein content were evaluated by real-time PCR and Western blotting, respectively, in pituitary gland of rats euthanized every 3 h during a 24-h period at the Zeitgeber times (ZT3 to ZT24). The GH mRNA poly(A) tail length was determined by RACE-PAT assay. Key findingsWe identified two main peaks of GH mRNA level in the pituitary gland of rats; one in the middle of the light-cycle and another in the middle of the dark-cycle. The latter was associated with an increase in pituitary GH protein content. Interestingly, an increment in the poly(A) tail length of the GH transcript was observed in association to reduced migration rate of the GH transcript and increased mRNA content in the dark-cycle period. SignificanceOur findings provide evidence that changes in the GH mRNA poly(A) length may underlie the circadian pattern of GH mRNA and protein levels in the pituitary gland of rats.

Growth Hormone Secretion Patterns in German Landrace (DL) Fetuses and Piglets Compared to DL Piglets with Inherited 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Deficiency.

The regulation of growth hormone (GH) release during prenatal development and during early postnatal life is not entirely clarified. In this study plasma GH concentrations in pigs with inherited pseudo vitamin D deficiency type I (PDDR-I), which regularly show growth retardation, were compared during ontogeny with unaffected pigs of the same breed (German Landrace, DL) as control. Plasma GH concentrations were measured in plasma of chronically catheterized fetuses (beginning on day 101 after mating or after artificial insemination) and in piglets (day 37 postpartum (p.p.)—day 42 p.p.) of both lines. A growth curve beginning at day 7 p.p. was recorded for both lines. The relative amount of GH receptor (GHR) mRNA in liver was quantified by competitive reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction in piglets at day 42 p.p. A trend for higher GH concentrations was observed in PDDR-I fetuses (p < 0.1). In PDDR-I piglets compared to DL piglets higher plasma GH values (p < 0.01), were observed despite lower body weight. The relative quantity of GHR mRNA in liver was not significantly different between the two lines. Piglets with an inherited defect of vitamin D synthesis showed higher GH concentrations. A hormonal imprinting by low 1,25(OH)2D3 could be one reason for our observations and should be analysed in detail in future.

Human Placental Growth Hormone Variant in Pathological Pregnancies.

Growth hormone (GH), an endocrine hormone, primarily secreted from the anterior pituitary, stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration and is a major regulator of postnatal growth. Humans have two GH genes that encode two versions of GH proteins: a pituitary version (GH-N/GH1) and a placental GH-variant (GH-V/GH2), which are expressed in the syncytiotrophoblast and extravillous trophoblast cells of the placenta. During pregnancy, GH-V replaces GH-N in the maternal circulation at mid-late gestation as the major circulating form of GH. This remarkable change in spatial and temporal GH secretion patterns is proposed to play a role in mediating maternal adaptations to pregnancy. GH-V is associated with fetal growth, and its circulating concentrations have been investigated across a range of pregnancy complications. However, progress in this area has been hindered by a lack of readily accessible and reliable assays for measurement of GH-V. This review will discuss the potential roles of GH-V in normal and pathological pregnancies and will touch on the assays used to quantify this hormone.

Functional Roles of Sex-Biased, Growth Hormone-Regulated MicroRNAs miR-1948 and miR-802 in Young Adult Mouse Liver.

Sex-specific temporal patterns of pituitary growth hormone (GH) secretion determine the sex-biased transcription of hundreds of genes in the liver and impart important sex differences in liver physiology, metabolism, and disease. Sex differences in hepatic gene expression vary widely, ranging from less than twofold to >1000-fold in the mouse. Here, we use small RNA sequencing to discover 24 sex-biased mouse liver microRNAs (miRNAs), and then investigate the roles of two of these miRNAs in GH-regulated liver sex differences. Studies in prepubertal and young adult mice, and in mice in which pituitary hormones are ablated or where sex-specific hepatic GH signaling is dysregulated, demonstrated that the male-biased miR-1948 and the female-biased miR-802 are both regulated by sex-specific pituitary GH secretory patterns, acquire sex specificity at puberty, and are dependent on the GH-activated transcription factor STAT5 for their sex-specific expression. Both miRNAs are within genomic regions characterized by sex-biased chromatin accessibility. miR-1948, an uncharacterized miRNA, has essential features for correct Drosha/Dicer processing, generates a bona fide mature miRNA with strong strand bias for the 5p arm, and is bound by Argonaute in liver tissue, as is miR-802. In vivo studies using inhibitory locked nucleic acid sequences revealed that miR-1948-5p preferentially represses female-biased messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and induces male-biased mRNAs in male liver; conversely, miR-802-5p preferentially represses male-biased mRNAs and increases levels of female-biased mRNAs in female liver. Cytochrome P450 mRNAs were strongly enriched as targets of both miRNAs. Thus, miR-1948-5p and miR-802-5p are functional components of the GH regulatory network that shapes sex-differential gene expression in mouse liver.

The key role of targeted betacarotene supplementation on endocrine and reproductive outcomes in goats: Follicular development, ovulation rate and the GH-IGF-1 axis

The possible effects of betacarotene (BC) supplementation on the secretion pattern of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and their possible relationship with total ovarian activity (TOA), was evaluated in adult goats during the breeding season. In October, goats [n=22, 3.5y. old, 7/8 Sannen-Alpine] were randomly assigned to: a) Betacarotene group [BC, n=10; 45.9±1.97kg live weight (LW), 3.04±0.08 units, body condition score (BCS), supplemented with 50mg of BC goat day−1], and b) Control group [CONT, n=12; 46.2±2.04kg LW, 3.0±0.08 units, BCS]. An ultrasonographic scan was performed to evaluate corpus luteum number (OR) and antral follicle number (AF); TOA=OR+AF. Average LW and BCS did not differ (p>0.05) during the experimental period, yet BC-goats reflected an increased OR (3.4±0.2 vs. 2.8±0.2), AF (5.0±0.6 vs. 3.4±0.6) and TOA (8.4±0.5 vs. 6.2±0.6). Regarding the endocrine profile, the lowest (p<0.05) serum GH average concentrations (10.0 vs. 14.3±1.0ngmL−1; p=0.01) and GH-AUC (3670.4 vs. 5235.7±369.8 units; p=0.01), were observed in the BC-supplemented group. Neither serum IGF-1 concentrations (254.6±28.9ngmL−1 p>0.05) nor GH-PULSE (1.4±0.5 pulses 6h−1 p>0.05) differed between treatments. We document a potential role of BC as modulator of somatotrophic function, decreasing mean serum concentration and the area under the curve of GH, while also noting a positive action upon ovarian function with increases in ovulation rate and antral follicular development; such outcomes may embrace not only physiologic significance but also potential translational applications.

Somatostatin-IRES-Cre Mice: Between Knockout and Wild-Type?

The neuropeptide somatostatin (SOM) is widely expressed in rodent brain and somatostatin-IRES-Cre (SOM-cre) mouse strains are increasingly used to unravel the physiology of SOM-containing neurons. However, while knock-in targeting strategy greatly improves Cre-Lox system accuracy, recent reports have shown that genomic insertion of Cre construct per se can markedly affect physiological function. We show that Cre transgene insertion into the 3′UTR of the somatostatin gene leads to the selective and massive depletion of endogenous SOM in all tested brain regions. It also strongly impacts SOM-related neuroendocrine responses in a similar manner to what has been reported for SST KO mice: increased corticosterone levels after 30-min restraint stress, decreased amplitude and regularity of ultradian growth hormone secretory patterns accompanied by changes in sexually dimorphic liver gene expression (serpina1, Cyp2b9, Cyp2a4, Cyp2d9, and Cyp7b1). In addition to demonstrating the need for examination of the consequences of Cre transgenesis, these results also reveal how this SOM-cre strain may be a useful tool in studying the functional consequences of moderate to low SOM levels as reported in neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Rising maternal circulating GH during murine pregnancy suggests placental regulation.

Placenta-derived hormones including growth hormone (GH) in humans contribute to maternal adaptation to pregnancy, and intermittent maternal GH administration increases foetal growth in several species. Both patterns and abundance of circulating GH are important for its activity, but their changes during pregnancy have only been reported in humans and rats. The aim of the present study was to characterise circulating profiles and secretory characteristics of GH in non-pregnant female mice and throughout murine pregnancy. Circulating GH concentrations were measured in whole blood (2 μL) collected every 10 min for 6 h in non-pregnant diestrus female C57Bl/6J mice (n = 9), and pregnant females at day 8.5–9.5 (early pregnancy, n = 8), day 12.5–13.5 (mid-pregnancy, n = 7) and day 17.5 after mating (late pregnancy, n = 7). Kinetics and secretory patterns of GH secretion were determined by deconvolution analysis, while orderliness and regularity of serial GH concentrations were calculated by approximate entropy analysis. Circulating GH was pulsatile in all groups. Mean circulating GH and total and basal GH secretion rates increased markedly from early to mid-pregnancy, and then remained elevated. Pulse frequency and pulsatile GH secretion rate were similar between groups. The irregularity of GH pulses was higher in all pregnant groups than that in non-pregnant mice. Increased circulating GH in murine pregnancy is consistent with an important role for this hormone in maternal adaptation to pregnancy and placental development. The timing of increased basal secretion from mid-pregnancy, concurrent with the formation of the chorioallantoic placenta and initiation of maternal blood flow through it, suggests regulation of pituitary secretion by placenta-derived factors.