Gender Patterns Research Articles

Gendered wage returns to changes in non-routine job tasks: Evidence from Germany

The labor market exhibits persistent occupational segregation by gender, with women and men performing distinct job tasks within their occupations. Prior research suggests that non-routine job tasks generally lead to higher wages, especially in digitally advancing contexts. However, these findings are largely based on cross-sectional data and neglect gender as a relevant dimension of inequality. We analyze three-wave panel data over nine years from the German National Educational Panel Study to explore the relationship between changes in non-routine job tasks and wages by gender. Given the constrained wage-setting opportunities within German firms, we further examine whether the association between task changes and wages differs for employees with and without job changes, both within and across occupational segments. Our fixed-effect regression analyses reveal gender-specific associations between changes in non-routine job tasks and wage increases. Men benefit from performing more complex and autonomous tasks, with additional gains when an inter-segmental job change accompanies the increase in complex job tasks. Conversely, women do not see wage benefits from enhancements in either complex or autonomous job tasks. These findings underscore the gendered patterns of wage increases associated with advancements in non-routine job tasks, with men profiting intra-individually from shifts towards more non-routine job tasks.

Post-1989 women’s struggle between career growth and everyday duties

ABSTRACT Reflection of everyday life in connection to post-socialist transformation inevitably includes a gender perspective. Within this broad framework, the paper concentrates on two aspects of the transition: new professional opportunities on the one hand and persisting gender patterns, which put a burden on women to cope with both work and family care. The paper focuses on the management environment to address the topic; the author reflects on the issue through the analysis and interpretation of the life and professional stories of two Czech women managers. However, it does not offer a mere reflection from the point of view of the “elites.” It convincingly shows how everyday life and the ongoing connection of women with the sphere of family and household functioned as an inhibitor for women to enter top positions, positions in which it is possible to exercise the power to make decisions and influence the functioning of society.

Mapping gender patterns in “dynamic cultural spaces”: the case of Beijing’s open-air antiques “ghost market” at Panjiayuan

Despite the growing recognition of the importance of street vendors and informal markets for urban life and the economy globally, research attention has tended to focus on essential products such as food or clothes and paid less attention to cultural products, such as antiques where potential gender, and other socio-demographic, differences in vending and buying behaviours may systematically differ. To explore these issues, this study employed spatial–temporal behaviour mapping (STBM) and field observations (n = 8587) at Beijing’s Panjiayuan antiques “ghost market” a term reflecting its previously illegal/underground and mobile nature. We monitored four representative sites within the market, four times a day for six consecutive days. The data included five categories of behaviour, four age groups, and two genders. Data were recorded and analysed using ArcGIS. Results showed that, unlike common marketplaces, the antique market is primarily frequented by male vendors and buyers, replicating patterns seen in ancient Chinese paintings of men being involved in the trading of “non-essentials”. Nonetheless, we found differing gender balances depending on the time and day of the week, different age groups, and spatial settings in different market areas. We summarise the nuanced relationships between the emerging gender spatio-temporal behaviour patterns and three key factors, spatial characteristics, physical activities and the social division of labour, in the Chinese context. The study reveals how the varied spatial–temporal patterns of a large antique “ghost market” raise long-established issues of equity and inclusivity and provide empirical insights that could inform decision-making and urban planning, such as better use of dynamic lighting provision to encourage a more gender-balanced experience.

Employment outcomes of refugee women and men: multiple gender gaps and the importance of high-skill jobs

ABSTRACT Refugee women face significant challenges when seeking employment in Western host countries. To advance gender-sensitive perspectives within migration and refugee research, this study examines differences in employment outcomes between refugee women and men. Specifically, this study provides a nuanced picture of six indicators of employment outcomes, including pay, fixed-term versus permanent employment contract, overqualification, career prospects, an at-home feeling in the workplace and the ability to talk to colleagues about personal problems. The study also shows that individuals’ occupational status plays a role in gender disparities. Our findings, based on a recent survey of refugees working in Austria, reveal several gender gaps, with an especially significant gap regarding fixed-term employment contracts. Refugee women, who are more likely to be disadvantaged in employment outcomes, benefit disproportionately from working in high-skill jobs. The findings underscore the complex nature of gendered patterns in labour market integration of refugees and imply specific policies addressing gender inequality in this setting.

Differences in the Classroom: Gender, Race, and Trauma as Affective Hotspots in Finnish Education for Adult Migrants

ABSTRACT In this article, we examine the affects that become constructed in Finnish education for adult migrants. Our point of departure for analysing the research material—educators’ interviews—is in the everyday situations where educators’ and students’ emotions and life experiences meet with the institutional conditions of education. In the educators’ narrations of these situations, the affects are constructed in patterns attached to intersectional categories of difference. The most affectively intense categories are gender, race, and trauma. With the first two being the classic subjects of feminist analysis and the latter less traditional, we argue that utilizing affect theory can produce new knowledge of these categories and of educators’ work. Our analysis shows that, whereas the affective patterns of gender and race become rooted in cultural and structural factors, the pattern of trauma is more difficult to grasp. We also show that understanding the affective patterns of educators’ work can disclose how to encounter differences in the classroom.

“Whatever is bad goes back to the woman”: The gendered blame game of sickle cell disease in Malawi and Uganda

Mothers are commonly blamed for the ill-health of their children, and this is well documented in research. However, few studies have considered gendered patterns of blame for hereditary conditions caused by mutations from both parents through dual, shared genetic inheritance. This paper explores the ‘gendering’ of blame in the context of an inherited blood disorder known as sickle cell disease. The findings are drawn from 18 focus group discussions with 117 caregivers of children with sickle cell disease in Malawi and Uganda. Although one mutation from each parent is required for the disease to develop, low awareness about their status as healthy carriers of a sickle cell trait complicated the caregivers' recognition and acceptance of their genetic link to the child's condition. This study demonstrates how fathers and other members of the paternal side of the child's family would deflect blame from their own lineage by directing sole ‘genetic responsibility’ for the child's disease towards mothers. We discuss the implications of gendered blame on household dynamics and healthcare-seeking for children with sickle cell disease in this setting.

Cleft Lip Surgery in Sudan: Clinical Presentations, Early Outcomes, and Patient and Professional Satisfaction: A sub-Saharan African experience

BackgroundCleft lip and palate are the most common congenital craniofacial anomalies. They account for approximately 13% of all congenital anomalies. ObjectivesTo study the presentation of cleft lip and the early results of surgical repair among patients who presented to our centers. MethodsThis was a hospital-based prospective cohort study of 72 patients who underwent cleft lip repair in Sudan. ResultsThe commonest age group was between 10–18 months. The male-to-female ratio was 2:1, and a family history of cleft lip was found in 2.8% of patients. The cleft lip was complete in 81.9%, incomplete in 12.5%, and hybrid in 5.6% of patients. Associated cleft palate was observed in 54 patients. Associated syndromes were found in 10 patients. The surgery was carried out in most patients at 9 months or less; in 4 patients, it was more than 18 months. Achievement of reasonable lip repair was moderate (50% collectively). High achievement was observed for criteria, such as accurate union (90.3%), and sub-moderate achievement in even vermillion border and cupid's bow (44%), low nose symmetry (30.6%), and quality of scar (18.1%). Early complications were reported at the rate of 13.9%. Patient satisfaction was 59.7%; however, the professionals showed higher satisfaction levels (66.7%). The anthropometric measurements of normal infants were moderately similar to those of the infants who underwent surgery. ConclusionThe patients with cleft lip showed early presentation, with a predominance of the male gender and left side pattern. The preliminary outcome of cleft lip repair was moderate, with variations in different criteria. Patient and professional satisfaction were above average.

Has the COVID-19 pandemic changed existing patterns of non-COVID-19 health care utilization? A retrospective analysis of six regions in Europe

Abstract Background Resilience of national health systems in Europe remains a major concern in times of multiple crises and as more evidence is emerging relating to the indirect effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on health care utilization (HCU), resulting from de-prioritization of regular, non-pandemic healthcare services. Most extant studies focus on regional, disease specific or early pandemic HCU creating difficulties in comparing across multiple countries. We provide a comparatively broad definition of HCU across multiple countries, with potential to expand across regions and timeframes. Methods Using a cross-country federated research infrastructure (FRI), we examined HCU for acute cardiovascular events, elective surgeries and serious trauma. Aggregated data were used in forecast modelling to identify changes from predicted European age-standardized counts via fitted regressions (2017–19), compared against post-pandemic data. Results We found that elective surgeries were most affected, universally falling below predicted levels in 2020. For cardiovascular HCU, we found lower-than-expected cases in every region for heart attacks and displayed large sex differences. Serious trauma was the least impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusion The strength of this study comes from the use of the European Population Health Information Research Infrastructure’s (PHIRI) FRI, allowing for rapid analysis of regional differences to assess indirect impacts of events such as pandemics. There are marked differences in the capacity of services to return to normal in terms of elective surgery; additionally, we found considerable differences between men and women which requires further research on potential sex or gender patterns of HCU during crises.

Impact as equalizer: the demise of gender-related differences in anti-doping research

In general, the presence and performance of women in science have increased significantly in recent decades. However, gender-related differences persist and remain a global phenomenon. Women make a greater contribution to multidisciplinary research, which renders anti-doping research a compelling area for investigating the gendered aspects of academic research. The research design was based on the overall research aim to investigate whether gender in a specific field (ADS) has an effect on different aspects of research impact, including (1) the size of citation impact obtained by the research output, (2) the impact on the development of the knowledge base of ADS, expressed as the capacity of integrating knowledge from different research areas, and (3) the (expected) type of research impact targeting either societal or scientific developments (or both). We used a previously compiled dataset of 1341 scientific outputs. Using regression analysis, we explored the role of authors’ gender in citations and the effect of authorship features on scientific impact. We employed network analysis and developed a novel indicator (LinkScore) to quantify gendered authors’ knowledge integration capacity. We carried out a content analysis on a subsample of 210 outputs to explore gender differences in research goal orientation as related to gender patterns. Women’s representation has been considerably extended in the domain of ADS throughout the last two decades. On average, outputs with female corresponding authors yield a higher average citation score. Regarding women's knowledge integration roles, we can infer that no substantial gender differences can be detected. Dominantly female papers were overrepresented among publications classified as aimed at scientific progress, while the share of male-authored papers was higher in publications classified as aimed at societal progress. Although no significant gender difference was observed in knowledge integration roles, in anti-doping women appear to be more interdisciplinary than men.

Assessment regimes, data, gender haunting, and health education

ABSTRACT Most secondary (high) schools in a broad range of jurisdictions internationally engage in various forms of high stakes, standardized assessment and related qualifications. In this paper, we interrogate how educational achievement regimes – especially via the reporting of curriculum and assessment ‘data’ – continue to mobilize particular gender norms. Drawing on Derrida’s notion of haunting we explore how such regimes impose and reinscribe stable and binary gendered patterning and create what Barad has named ‘entangled relationalities of inheritance’ [https://doi.org/10.3366/drt.2010.0206,] despite young people (and many schools) moving towards greater recognition of non-binary genders. Drawing on assessment data from Aotearoa New Zealand, we look at both generalized reporting of educational achievement data along the lines of ‘male’ and ‘female’ and on reporting of a single (historically gendered) curriculum subject – health education. We argue that such systems are ‘haunted’ by stable gender categorizations and hierarchies and we ask what this means for the reporting of educational assessment data and the erasure of identities that don’t align with the binary.

Generational and Gender Patterns of Prescription Opioid Misuse Among Black Adults

IntroductionOpioid-related overdose mortality disproportionally affects Black adults in Kentucky, particularly overdoses associated with prescription opioid misuse (POM). Black adults also face other consequences of POM, such as disparate health and legal outcomes. While several factors effect POM, such as generational factors and gender, these risk factors are understudied among Black adults with a history of POM. Current literature primarily focuses on White individuals who use opioids. MethodThe present study qualitatively examined reasons for POM, prescription opioids misused, how prescription opioids are obtained, and initiation of POM among Black adults using thematic analysis. Participants included a sample (n = 39) of Black adults from a southern state, stratified by gender and age across four cohorts: born (1) 1995–2001, (2) 1980–1994, (3) 1970–1979, and (4) 1955–1969. ResultsResults revealed similarities and differences in these themes across age cohorts and gender. ConclusionsImplications for findings include the importance of culturally responsive interventions that utilize dual diagnosis treatment and idiographic approaches due to heterogeneous experiences with POM among Black adults.

Gender and age-specific patterns of ambulance calls in Khanty-Mansiysk depending on the epidemiological situation

BACKGROUND: The number of ambulance calls serves as an objective indicator of the disruption in population health associated with maladaptation or an increase in health disorders in harsh conditions of the North. This becomes especially apparent when the epidemiological situation shifts, highlighting the importance of this issue. AIM: To study the gender- and age-specific patterns of emergency calls for ambulance services in the population of Khanty-Mansiysk during varying epidemiological conditions using long-term monitoring data. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data on daily counts of ambulance calls was obtained from the for the period from 2015 to 2021 stratified by age and gender. The data were analyzed using wavelet analysis. RESULTS: When analyzing gender disparities during a pandemic, the coefficient representing the ratio of calls made by women to men decreased as the number of calls made by men increased. The distribution of calls by age revealed two distinct risk groups: young children and older adults. During the pandemic, there were no significant qualitative changes in the distribution of calls. Several scenarios of desynchronosis induced by the COVID-19 pandemic were identified. In infants, the changes in the epidemiological situation did not affect constant rhythms. The changes in the constant circadian rhythms to long-term and intercalary intra-annual rhythms were observed among children and youth. In adolescents and young adults, the pandemic acted as a synchronizer. In older age-groups, the circadian rhythms were maintained throughout the entire period. The period of the pandemic was characterized by addition of rhythms with a shorter period. CONCLUSION: The distribution of ambulance calls across age-groups is characterized by the presence of two distinct risk groups — early childhood and the 2nd adult age. During the pandemic, the structure of calls did not demonstrate qualitative changes. The COVID-19 pandemic was a desynchronizing factor in the temporal structure of health disorders affecting long-term and near-annual rhythms and inducing the intercalary intra-annual rhythms.

Prevalence and associated risk factors of sarcopenia in community-dwelling older adults in Pakistan: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundAdvancements in medical facilities have led to an increase in global life expectancy, emphasizing the need to address age-related health issues. Sarcopenia, characterized by muscle mass loss, poses significant challenges for older adults. Despite a higher prevalence in Asian populations, there is a remarkable absence of studies addressing sarcopenia among the older adults in Pakistan. This research aims to determine sarcopenia prevalence, identify risk factors, and explore gender- and age-specific patterns among older adults in Pakistan.MethodsA cross-sectional study involving 142 participants (65 males, 77 females) aged 60 and above was conducted using DEXA scans. Over a six-month period from January to June 2023, data were collected from the Islamabad Diagnostic Centre. This comprehensive dataset covered anthropometric measurements, body composition details, and health parameters. Statistical analyses, including logistic regression, were employed to examine the associations between sarcopenia and various factors.ResultsSarcopenia manifested in 47.18% of the older adult population (n = 142), with a distribution of 39 males (60%) and 28 females (36.36%). The investigation unveiled a compelling correlation between underweight status and sarcopenia across genders. Indeed, males exhibited a significant negative correlation between skeletal muscle mass index and age, whereas females did not show a statistically significant association. Males presented higher odds of sarcopenia in comparison to females (Odds Ratio [OR] = 2.63, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.33–5.18, p = 0.005). Age (OR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.02–1.22, p = 0.014), lower BMI (OR = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.20–0.60, p < 0.001), and reduced body fat percentage (OR = 1.75, 95% CI: 1.31–2.33, p < 0.001) emerged as significant contributors to sarcopenia. These detailed gender-specific findings emphasize the importance of customizing intervention strategies to address gender disparities in sarcopenia risk factors.ConclusionThis study highlights the significant prevalence of sarcopenia among older adults in Pakistan, with distinct gender and age-related patterns observed. The overall prevalence of sarcopenia was found to be 47.18%, with higher rates among males compared to females. Age emerged as a significant risk factor, with each additional year increasing the odds of sarcopenia. Furthermore, weight, BMI, lean mass, and total body fat demonstrated important associations with sarcopenia prevalence, highlighting the multifaceted nature of this condition. The practical implications of this study emphasize the need for targeted screening programs and personalized interventions to mitigate sarcopenia’s impact, informing healthcare policies and public health strategies in Pakistan.

Gendered patterns of intergenerational contact in Korea: Transitions from young‐old to middle‐old

AbstractObjectiveTo identify changes over time in gendered patterns of intergenerational contact between older adults and their adult children in an Asian context.BackgroundPatterns of contact between older adults and their adult children have strong implications for older adults' health in societies with strong family values and gendered expectations for old age care.MethodsThe authors utilized data from two waves of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing (2006 and 2016); 1,311 Korean older adults reported their frequency of contact (in‐person contact and mediated communication) with their 5,663 mixed‐gender adult children when they were aged 65–74 years and when they were aged 75–84 years, respectively. Latent transition analysis was applied to identify gendered patterns of contact among multiple children and examine transitions between waves.ResultsMore frequent contact with sons was twice as common as more frequent contact with daughters in 2006. However, these gender‐unequal patterns of contact were likely to transition to gender‐equal patterns in 2016. The onset of functional limitations was associated with transitions into equally frequent in‐person contact with sons and daughters, whereas the onset of clinically significant depressive symptoms was associated with transitions into more frequent mediated communication with daughters.ConclusionThe findings show a decline in traditional son‐preferential patterns of contact, in favor of gender‐equal contact among Korean older adults. Furthermore, mental health issues emerging in the transition from young‐old to middle‐old emphasize the role of daughters as kin‐keepers who support their parents emotionally.

Drinking patterns among US men and women: Racial and ethnic differences from adolescence to early midlife.

Drinking patterns among young adult men and women in the United States have been understudied, especially among racial and ethnic groups such as Asian Americans and Hispanics. Because alcohol-related racial and ethnic health disparities persist or increase in midlife, identifying peak ages of hazardous drinking could help to reduce disparities. We used the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to examine: (1) past 12-month heavy episodic drinking (HED) and total alcohol volume consumption among non-Hispanic White (NHW), Black, Hispanic, and Asian men and women from ages 12 through 41, and (2) age-varying associations of race and ethnicity with drinking. Hispanic and Asian ethnic groups were disaggregated by historical drinking patterns. Time-varying effect models accounted for major demographic confounders. NHW men and women experienced elevated drinking rates in their early 20s, with a second elevation in their 30s. Black men and women did not have elevated drinking until their 30s. Among Hispanic men and women, peak drinking periods varied by gender and subgroup drinking pattern. Peak HED and total consumption emerged in the early 30s for Asian men, while peak HED occurred in the early 20s for Asian women. Drinking at certain ages for some racial and ethnic minoritized men and women did not differ from that in their NHW counterparts. Age periods during which subgroups in the U.S. population experience elevated alcohol consumption vary by ethnicity and gender. Recognition of these group differences could enhance our understanding of intervention timing.

Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis: changing trends in the incidence, age and gender (findings from the CMC Vellore CVT registry)

BackgroundMultiple cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVT) registries from various geographical regions indicate that female gender, the use of contraceptive pills, pregnancy and puerperium are important risk factors. In this study,...

The predictor of non-suicidal self-injury behavior among adolescents: a cross-sectional study

Introduction: Non-Suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) among adolescents is a prevalent issue in Indonesia. Comprehensive understanding of NSSI is essential for uncovering the factors that trigger and predispose adolescents to such behavior. This knowledge serves as a foundation for crafting targeted nursing interventions to address and mitigate NSSI among this vulnerable population. This study aimed to identify determinant factors contributing to the occurrence of Non-Suicidal Self-Injury behavior in adolescents. Methods: The study employed a cross-sectional approach conducted between October and December 2023, with 570 respondents selected through simple random sampling. Socio-demographic, precipitating, and predisposing factors were measured using a checklist sheet. The Self-Harm Inventory (SHI) instrument was utilized to assess NSSI. Data analysis involved Pearson correlation and multiple regression to examine the relationships between variables. Results: The study revealed significant relationships among five variables. Gender (p-value = 0.004), bullying (p-value = 0.002), disappointment (p-value = 0.001), sharing place (p-value = 0.002), and communication pattern (p-value = 0.010) were identified as factors associated with Non-Suicidal Self-Injury behavior in adolescents. On the other hand, personality (p-value = 0.174), environment (p-value = 0.260), coping mechanism (p-value = 0.458), and parenting style (p-value = 0.054) showed no association with Non-Suicidal Self-Injury behavior. Conclusions: The findings underscore the significance of disappointment and the absence of a supportive environment in influencing NSSI. This highlights important considerations for healthcare professionals, educators, and policymakers. Strategies should encompass comprehensive approaches, early detection, and targeted interventions to foster supportive environments and address the complex nature of NSSI among adolescents.

Gender Patterns in Indonesian: A Corpus Study of Personal Pronoun References “Ia” and “Dia”

Indonesian is a language that does not have a grammatical gender feature, and this absence extends to the third-person singular pronouns. In English and many European languages, there are distinct second-person for addressing genders: male and female. The grammatical structure of Indonesian remains unchanged despite temporal shifts and the absence of gender-specific distinctions. The official Indonesian dictionary (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia or KBBI) does not designate ia and dia with explicit gender distinctions, such as masculine and feminine. This research aims to discuss the masculine and feminine contextual patterns of the pronouns ia and dia within the Indonesian Corpus (Korpus Bahasa Indonesia or KOIN). The study used a dataset comprising 121.098 tokens selected from literature, national, and social categories. Identifying gender patterns in using the second-person pronouns gets the research focus on the data of 19.697 concordances of the word ia and 10.031 concordances of dia. The findings indicate that dia has a reasonably equal association with both genders, but the word ia prefers feminine references more. It clarifies the nuances of gender expression in Indonesian and explains how linguistic decisions communicate gender information.

Explaining adverse cholesterol levels and distinct gender patterns in an Indonesian population compared with the U.S.

Cardiovascular disease is among the most common causes of death around the world. As rising incomes in low and middle-income countries are accompanied by increased obesity, the burden of disease shifts towards non-communicable diseases, and lower-income settings make up a growing share of cardiovascular disease deaths. Comparative investigation of the roles of body composition, behavioral and socioeconomic factors across countries can shed light on both the biological and social drivers of cardiovascular disease more broadly. Comparing rigorously-validated measures of HDL and non-HDL cholesterol among adults in the United States and in Aceh, Indonesia, we show that Indonesians present with adverse cholesterol biomarkers relative to Americans, despite being younger and having lower body mass index. Adjusting for age, the gaps increase. Body composition, behaviors, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics that affect cholesterol do not explain between-country HDL differences, but do explain non-HDL differences, after accounting for medication use. On average, gender differences are inconsistent across the two countries and persist after controlling observed characteristics. Leveraging the richness of the Indonesian data to draw comparisons of males and females within the same household, the gender gaps among Indonesians are not explained for HDL cholesterol but attenuated substantially for non-HDL cholesterol. This finding suggests that unmeasured household resources play an important role in determining non-HDL cholesterol. More generally, they appear to be affected by social and biological forces in complex ways that differ across countries and potentially operate differently for HDL and non-HDL biomarkers. These results point to the value of rigorous comparative studies to advance understanding of cardiovascular risks across the globe.

The long-term changing patterns of suicide mortality in China from 1987 to 2020: continuing urban-rural disparity

BackgroundOver the past three decades, China has experienced significant changes in urban-rural, gender, and age-specific suicide mortality patterns. This study aimed to investigate the long-term trends in suicide mortality in China from 1987 to 2020.MethodsSuicide mortality data were obtained from China’s National Health Commission. Joinpoint regression analysis was used to examine changes in trends and age-period-cohort modeling to estimate age, period, and cohort effects on suicide mortality from 1987 to 2020. Net drift, local drift, longitudinal age curves, and period relative risks were also calculated.ResultsCrude and age-standardized suicide mortality in China showed continuing downward trends from 1987 to 2020, with a more pronounced decrease in rural areas (net drift = -7.07%, p<0.01) compared to urban areas (net drift = -3.41%, p<0.01). The decline curve of urban areas could be divided into three substages. Period and cohort effects were more prominent in rural areas. Suicide risk was highest among individuals aged 20–24 and gradually increased after age 60. Females, particularly those of childbearing age, had higher suicide risk than males, with a reversal observed after age 50. This gender reversal showed distinct patterns in urban and rural areas, with a widening gap in urban areas and a relatively stable gap in rural areas.ConclusionsSuicide mortality in China has consistently declined over the past three decades. However, disparities in age, gender, and urban-rural settings persist, with new patterns emerging. Targeted suicide prevention programs are urgently needed for high-risk groups, including females of childbearing age and the elderly, and to address the slower decrease and reversing urban-rural gender trends.