Agonistic Behaviour Patterns Research Articles

Agonistic interactions with asymmetric body size in two adult-age groups of the annual killifish Millerichthys robustus (Miller & Hubbs,1974).

In this study, the author evaluated two adult age groups of the Mexican rivulus Millerichthys robustus with body size asymmetries to determine the strategies used by an annual killifish during agonistic interactions of different ontogenetic stages. To achieve this goal, the author first characterized the ethogram of agonistic interactions of M. robustus composed of seven behavioural units in males and five behavioural units in females. The author then analysed agonistic interaction strategies used by males and females with body size asymmetries in two groups of different adult ages that represent different ontogenetic stages: (a) just after sexual maturity was reached, at 5 weeks of age, and (b) near natural death, at 24 weeks of age. The agonistic behaviour patterns of M. robustus were compatible with the logic of mutual assessment. Large males had an advantage during their interactions in both age groups, winning all of the encounters. Nonetheless, there was more aggression in 5-week-old fish encounters. In addition, small 24-week-old fish were more aggressive than small 5-week-old fish. These changing strategies may be because of the cost-benefits required during a fight at each ontogenetic stage. In the female encounters, size did not predict winners, as both small and large fish won a similar number of encounters, and some contests remained unresolved regardless of age group. There was a tendency for small females of any age to risk more than males in fights to maintain reproductive fitness.

Phenotypic and genomic analyses of agonistic interactions in laying hen lines divergently selected for feather pecking

In poultry, aggressive pecking and threatening are normal agonistic behavior patterns which serve to establish a social hierarchy. As agonistic behavior is a stressor for animals, its excessive occurrence is undesired in layer flocks. Feather pecking is a longstanding serious problem in layer flocks and its relationship to agonistic behavior is still not clear. Therefore, phenotypic and genomic analyses of the agonistic and feather pecking behavior of two laying hen lines divergently selected for high and low feather pecking were conducted. The hens were phenotyped for the active traits aggressive pecks delivered (APD)11Aggressive pecks delivered (APD), threats delivered (TD)22Threats delivered (TD), feather pecks delivered (FPD)33Feather pecks delivered (FPD) and the passive traits aggressive pecks received (APR)44Aggressive pecks received (APR), threats received (TR)55Threats received (TR) and feather pecks received (FPR)66Feather pecks received (FPR). Indices were built by subtracting the passive traits from the respective active traits to obtain the aggression index, the threat index, and the feather pecking index. As all three behavior patterns in their excessive manifestations are undesired, the index-traits Activity and Passivity were also defined by combining each the active and passive traits. The results showed that FPD is significantly positive correlated with APD and TD in both lines, but with higher coefficients in the high feather pecking line. The average amount of FPR in both lines is nearly the same and no correlation was found between FPR and FPD, APD or TD in any of the lines. The active traits and the feather pecking index showed medium heritabilities, whereas the heritability was negligibly small for the other traits. GWAS revealed four nominal significant (p ≤ 5*10−5) SNPs for APD on chromosome 6, the same four and three additional SNPs on chromosome 8 for Activity and three SNPs on chromosome 1 for the feather pecking index. It is concluded, that selection on high feather pecking leads to an increase of agonistic behavior. The correlation probably depends on the phase of establishing the social hierarchy in which the hens in a newly formed group are at the time of observation, and might disappear, after a stable ranking is established. The reception of feather pecking is similar in both lines. GWAS revealed that TD, APD, Activity and the feather pecking index seem to be typical quantitative traits with associated regions for the latter three which have slightly greater effects on these traits than other regions in the genome.

Pola Pergerakan Perilaku Agonistik Lobster Air Tawar Cherax quadricarinatus (Von Martens, 1868)

This research on movement patterns of agonistic behavior in crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus was conducted at laboratory and used an aquarium size 25 cm x 10 cm x 15 cm. The patterns of agonistic behavior were recorded by using a CCD and digital camera. The recorded data were analyzed using The Adobe Premier computer program and using Jaccard similarity to solve the reciprocal movement patterns. Clustering based on the UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Method Average) indicated that the dissimilarity value was about 0,98 and the moving pattern of the agonistic behaviors were grouped into five groups, namely: 1) threatening; 2) arranging the strategy; 3) testing the enemies capability; 4) fighting; 5) avoiding and defending.

Male ruff colour as a rank signal in a monomorphic-horned mammal: behavioural correlates.

Coexistence of individuals within a social group is possible through the establishment of a hierarchy. Social dominance is achieved through aggressive interactions, and, in wild sheep and goats, it is related mainly to age, body size and weapon size as rank signals. Adult male Himalayan tahr are much larger than females and subadult males. They have a prominent neck ruff, ranging in colour from yellow (5.5-9.5 years old, i.e. young adults, golden males) to brown (7.5-14.5 years old, i.e. older individuals, pale and dark brown males), with golden males being the most dominant. We investigated the social behaviour of male tahr and analysed the relationships between ruff colour, courtship and agonistic behaviour patterns during the rut. Colour classes varied in their use of several behaviour patterns (male dominance: approach, stare, horning vegetation; courtship: low stretch, naso-genital contact, rush). Golden-ruffed males used more threats than darker ones. Pale brown and dark brown males addressed threats significantly more often to males of lower or their own colour classes, respectively, whereas golden ones addressed threats to all colour classes, including their own. The courtship of dominant males was characterised by the assertive rush, whereas that of subordinates did not. Ruff colour of male Himalayan tahr may have evolved as a rank signal, homologous to horn size in wild sheep and goats.

Are agonistic behavior patterns signals or combat tactics — Or does it matter? Targets as organizing principles of fighting

During competitive interactions, such as fighting and predation, animals perform various actions, some of which are easy to characterize and label, some of which are reliably repeated. Such ‘behavior patterns’ are often the measures of choice when comparing across species and experimental contexts. However, as Bob Blanchard and others have pointed out, such measurements can be misleading as in competitive interactions in which the animals compete for some advantage, often the biting or otherwise contacting a particular target on the opponent's body. In this context, the animals' behavior is better analyzed in terms of the tactics of attack and defense deployed by the combatants to gain or avoid contact with those targets. Several examples are shown to reveal that this is an important distinction as simply scoring predefined behavior patterns can obscure the dynamic context in which the actions are performed. This can lead to confounding species and experimental differences and the mislabeling of combat actions as communicatory signals.

Stability of social behavior in captive American Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber): A quantitative case study.

Over a three-year period a captive American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) group showed recurring seasonal changes in the pattern of agonistic behavior. In spite of seasonal changes in the rates of agonistic behavior, dominance relations were generally stable across seasons. Males had significantly higher dominance status than females, and birds in long-term male-female pair bonds had significantly higher dominance than others. Unresolved agonistic encounters (URI), those with no clear winner or loser, were frequently observed; and their pattern of occurrence changed over the course of the year. URI were most frequent on the breeding "island" during the breeding season, and at the feeder in the post-breeding season. Thus, the frequency of URI reliably tracked seasonal changes regarding the resources most in contention; and, the extent of an individual's involvement in URI was indicative of privileged access to resources over which competition occurred.

Decreased aggression and increased repetitive behavior in Pten haploinsufficient mice.

Aggression is an aspect of social behavior that can be elevated in some individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and a concern for peers and caregivers. Mutations in Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), one of several ASD risk factors encoding negative regulators of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway, have been reported in individuals with ASD and comorbid macrocephaly. We previously showed that a mouse model of Pten germline haploinsufficiency (Pten(+/-) ) has selective deficits, primarily in social behavior, along with broad overgrowth of the brain. Here, we further examine the social behavior of Pten(+/-) male mice in the resident-intruder test of aggression, using a comprehensive behavioral analysis to obtain an overall picture of the agonistic, non-agonistic and non-social behavior patterns of Pten(+/-) mice during a free interaction with a novel conspecific. Pten(+/-) male mice were involved in less aggression than their wild-type littermates. Pten(+/-) mice also performed less social investigation, including anogenital investigation and approaching and/or attending to the intruder, which is consistent with our previous finding of decreased sociability in the social approach test. In contrast to these decreases in social behaviors, Pten(+/-) mice showed increased digging. In summary, we report decreased aggression and increased repetitive behavior in Pten(+/-) mice, thus extending our characterization of this model of an ASD risk factor that features brain overgrowth and social deficits.

Agonistic and courtship behaviour patterns in the skink Chalcides viridanus (Fam. Scincidae) from Tenerife

There have been relatively few attempts to quantitatively describe behaviours in scincid lizards. Chalcides viridanus is a small body-sized skink endemic of Tenerife (Canary Islands). We describe and quantify 18 behaviour patterns (both social and agonistic) of this species, some of which have not been described before for other scincids. Video recordings of male–male, female–female, and male–female interactions were made under laboratory conditions, with controlled light–dark cycle and temperature. We describe several agonistic and courtship behaviour patterns. Within the first context, we detected a new agonistic behaviour for a scincid, “Snout to body”, that appeared at the beginning of agonistic sequences; it consisted of each animal placing its snout in contact with the other individual’s lateral side of the body. The amplitude of head movement during “Head bobbing” was lower than that described for many other lizard species. Agonistic behaviours were shown in intrasexual staged encounters both within males and females. The comparison of behaviour patterns of both types of intrasexual encounters showed that females were more active, exhibiting significantly higher frequencies of behaviour than males. Specifically, females showed the “Snout to body” pattern more frequently than males. In male–female encounters we detected courtship and copulation patterns only in April, when males performed “Bites” and “Snout to body” directed at females.

Behavioral evaluation of quinestrol as a sterilant in male Brandt's voles

The theoretical, ecological, physiological, and mathematical aspects of fertility control in mammals have already been well studied, but little attention has been given to the behavioral effects, especially in rodents. We investigated the effects of quinestrol, a synthetic estradiol analog, on social behavior and reproductive physiology in male Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii). Over seven successive days, four concentration gradients of quinestrol (none, 0.001%, 0.003%, and 0.006%) were separately mixed into feed and provided to male Brandt's voles. Reproductive parameters, including the reproductive organ indexes, testosterone level and reproductive ability, were observed and collected 2weeks after finished feeding treatment and again after 4weeks. Dyadic social encounters and female preferences were then recorded for the control males (no quinestrol) and the highest concentration group (0.006%). Results showed that quinestrol reduced the consumption of feed. Physiological data revealed that quinestrol had also effectively reduced the reproductive organs indexes, testosterone levels, female pregnancy rates and litter size. This phenomenon was especially evident in the highest concentration group only after 2weeks of feeding. Behavioral results showed that both frequency and duration of female preference were unbiased between control and treated males. In social conflict tests, control pairs (CC) had lower latency toward initial attack than treated pairs (TT) and pairs of one control and one treated male (CT). Among the three pairs, there was no evident difference in patterns of mutual attack and agonistic behavior. In CT pairs, sterile males have the same winning rate and agonistic behavior as control males. Our data revealed that quinestrol has anti-fertility capabilities with little behavioral side effects on Brandt's voles, which suggested quinestrol's potential as a sterilant for Brandt's voles. The palatability, however, should be improved before field practice.

Behavior and phylogenetic relations among artiodactyla families (Artiodactyla, Mammalia)

Phylogenetic relationships among five contemporary Artiodactyla families (Suidae, Tragulidae, Moschidae, Bovide, Cervidae) are studied using the cluster analysis of 45 behavioral features in representatives of 51 genera. Representatives of ancient Suidae and Tragulidae groups are shown to contain archaic patterns in their behavioral repertoire and form a common clade within the phylogenetic tree. Bovidae and Cervidae form a monophyletic branch, while Moschidae occupy an external position and, thus, make up a sister group to the previous two. Patterns of cleaning, defensive, feeding, agonistic, sexual, mother-child, and territorial behavior are discussed. Patterns of agonistic behavior that correspond to the certain stages of phylogenetic development in Artiodactyla are found in representatives of all the families depending on their weapons, body size, and complexity of social organization in groups. In Moschidae, patterns are found to be parallel to behavioral repertoires of primitive ruminant animals—Tragulidae. On the basis of the results of this investigation, it is suggested to place Moschidae and Bovidae + Cervidae in the Cervoidea superfamily.

Species-Specific Patterns of Agonistic Behavior among Larvae of Three Syntopic Species of Ambystomatid Salamanders

We observed agonistic behavior among larval Ambystoma opacum, A. jeffersonianum, and A. maculatum in intra- and interspecific pairwise comparisons to determine if sympatric species exhibit unique behavioral responses to the presence of con- or heterospecific larvae, if they respond similarly to variation in competitor size, and if species identity is a reliable predictor of predation and cannibalism versus strictly nonlethal competitive interactions as an outcome of larval aggression. Each species exhibited a unique suite of behavioral responses associated with species and competitor size. Ambystoma opacum displayed high levels of aggression, most often towards conspecifics, but these behaviors rarely resulted in predation. Conversely, A. jeffersonianum displayed aggression frequently and often consumed both con- and heterospecific larvae. Furthermore, this species did not reduce aggression even in the presence of larger larvae. Ambystoma maculatum displayed relatively low levels of aggression under most ...

Agonistic behavior in males and females: Effects of an estrogen receptor beta agonist in gonadectomized and gonadally intact mice

Affiliative and agonistic social interactions are mediated by gonadal hormones. Research with estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) or beta (ERbeta) knockout (KO) mice show that long-term inactivation of ERalpha decreases, while inactivation of ERbeta increases, male aggression. Opposite effects were found in female alphaERKO and betaERKO mice. The role of acute activation of ERalpha or ERbeta in the agonistic responses of adult non-KO mice is unknown. We report here the effects of the ERbeta selective agonist WAY-200070 on agonistic and social behavior in gonadally intact and gonadectomized (gonadex) male and female CD-1 mice towards a gonadex, same-sex intruder. All 15min resident-intruder tests were videotaped for comprehensive behavioral analysis. Separate analyses assessed: (1) effects of WAY-200070 on each sex and gonadal condition; (2) differences between sexes, and between gonadally intact and gonadex mice, in untreated animals. Results show that in gonadally intact male and female mice, WAY-200070 increased agonistic behaviors such as pushing down the intruder and aggressive grooming, while leaving attacks unaffected. In untreated mice, males attacked more than females, and gonadex animals showed less agonistic behavior than same-sex, gonadally intact mice. Overall, our detailed behavioral analysis suggested that in gonadally intact male and female mice, ERbeta mediates patterns of agonistic behavior that are not directly involved in attacks. This suggests that specific aspects of aggressive behavior are acutely mediated by ERbeta in adult mice. Our results also showed that, in resident-intruder tests, female mice spend as much time in intrasexual agonistic interactions as males, but use agonistic behaviors that involve extremely low levels of direct attacks. This non-attack aggression in females is increased by acute activation of ERbeta. Thus, acute activation of ERbeta similarly mediates agonistic behavior in adult male and female CD-1 mice.

Examining deep litter as environmental enrichment for a family group of wolf's guenons, Cercopithecus wolfi

Manipulable substrates promote species-typical behavior and decrease abnormal behavior in a variety of primate species. However, the effects of providing litter to arboreal primates are not as well studied, and there is little information specifically concerning enrichment for guenons. To inform the captive management of an under-studied species, we evaluated deep litter substrate as environmental enrichment for a family group of Wolf's guenons, Cercopithecus wolfi. We expected it to promote species-typical behavior and to act as an intervention by reducing aggressive behaviors targeted toward a juvenile group member by his parents. We compared the guenons' behavior during baseline periods in which normal husbandry routines were followed to periods when the entire floor of their enclosure was covered with 30 cm of straw or wood wool. We then evaluated the group's preference between litters by comparing their relative use. The guenons spent more time feeding and were more active during both litter conditions, but relative to their respective baselines, they spent more time examining straw and less time examining wood wool. Straw, but not wood wool, promoted some affiliative behavior as well as greater tolerance of the juvenile's social proximity to others. However, the addition of deep litter did not ameliorate patterns of agonistic behavior among our subjects. Our results suggest that straw conferred greater behavioral benefits than wood wool as a deep litter substrate for this guenon group and may constitute a form of environmental enrichment for this species.

Behavioural repertoire of the bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus): agonistic interactions, mating behaviour and parent–offspring relations

A free-ranging bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) population was observed over a period of 3 years, thereby enabling a detailed description of the behavioural repertoire of this widespread but barely investigated solitary African antelope species. Agonistic and submissive behaviour patterns are described, among them several hitherto un-described behaviour patterns—such as “escorting”, where territorial males guide intruders to the periphery of their territory—and “push-up position”, an extreme form of submissive behaviour. Furthermore, we report on behaviour patterns of males and females during mating as well as on behaviour patterns of parents directed towards their offspring. Again, we describe a hitherto unknown behaviour: the protection of calves by adult males, which may be a socio-positive behaviour directed towards their offspring led by kin selection.

Agonistic Interactions Between Colonies of the Formosan Subterranean Termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in New Orleans, Louisiana

Our objective was to examine the pattern of agonistic behavior observed among 11 colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, collected from two locations in New Orleans, LA. In 24-h petri dish tests, 13 of the 40 colony pairs displayed agonism in at least one replicate. In 14-d tests conducted in sand-filled foraging arenas, seven of the nine colony pairs tested showed agonism, including three that had showed agonism in the 24-h test and four that had not shown any agonism in the 24-h test. In tests in which individual behavior was observed for 1 h, there was variation in the prevalence of aggressive behavior shown by individual workers. This study shows that interactions between colonies of C. formosanus from the same geographic area are complex and that these interactions could influence strategies for termite control.

Characteristics of social interaction between unfamiliar male rats (Rattus norvegicus): comparison of juvenile and adult stages

Social interaction between juvenile male rats that were unfamiliar with one another (JNI) was compared with that of adult unfamiliar animals (ANI). In their home cages, subjects were confronted with a stimulus conspecific and their agonistic behavior patterns were analyzed. It was found that behaviors that characterize "play fighting" (pouncing, submissive posture, on-top posture, etc.) were observed more in JNI than in ANI, whereas behaviors found in serious fighting (pawing, upright posture, etc.) were shown more in ANI. Analyses of the transitions between behaviors also revealed that the transitions constituting play fighting were found only in JNI. On the other hand, transitions that characterize serious fighting were shown in both JNI and ANI. These findings are discussed along with those of a previous study that observed the agonistic behavior between littermates, and the existence of some cue that signals the play-fighting situation among rats is suggested.

GROOMING AND COERCION IN ONE-MALE UNITS OF HAMADRYAS BABOONS: MARKET FORCES OR RELATIONSHIP CONSTRAINTS?

Abstract In the stable and cohesive social groups of primates (and other group-living mammals) individuals maintain long-lasting partnerships with a subset of their group companions. Such inter-individual relationships are based on the active exchange of a variety of affiliative, agonistic and cooperative behaviour patterns. Since these interactions influence the partners' biological fitness they are often regarded as 'services' or 'commodities' that are offered ('sold') and demanded ('bought') by individuals in order to cultivate those partnerships that best contribute to maximise their fitness. According to the biological markets theory, an individual's attractiveness as a social partner depends on the value of the services that it can provide and trade for, which depends on the levels of supply and demand, that is, a given service is more expensive to buy, the fewer are the individuals that offer it relative to the individuals that demand it. This paper uses data on grooming (i.e. investment and outbidding competition), female aggression (i.e. female contest competition), and male herding (i.e. male coercion) from a study of three differently-sized captive one-male, multi-female social systems of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) to test six biomarket-based predictions regarding the unit males' and females' allocation of grooming time and preferred grooming partnerships and the males' rate of coercion (Fig. 1). It was found that most core predictions were not borne out by the data. We propose an alternative model, namely, the 'constraint' model (Fig. 6), according to which the males' behaviour toward the females is expected to be constrained by the intensity of contest and outbidding competition with other males, by the number of relationships they have to service (i.e. their social time budget), and by how attractive (or valuable) they are to females. The latter should also influence the use of coercion by males. The females' behaviour toward the males is hypothesised to be constrained by the intensity of contest and outbidding competition with other females and by the extent of relationship conflict with males. Finally, female relationships are expected to be constrained by the males' behaviour, especially if they are prone to police female aggressive encounters, which contributes to reduce power differentials among them. Some of these predictions were supported by the data. Although both models share the view that an individual's availability, which is constrained by the social time budget already compromised, does influence his or her value as a social partner, the 'constraint' model does emphasise, in addition, that a male's accessibility, which is constrained by female competition, and quality (i.e. RHP), also contribute significantly to it and must be considered. Although market forces are likely to operate in the structuring of social relationships within primate groups, we suggest that their potential impact may be overriden in social systems in which contest and outbidding competition within trader classes, and conflict between trading partners, are strong. This effect should be even more exacerbated if power differentials among individuals are strong and if members of a trader class actively interfere the interactions of members of the other trader class, for example, by herding their affiliative interactions or by policing their agonistic encounters. In some kinds of animal social systems it appears that the main effect of demographic factors is to constrain the individuals' expression of their partner preferences and with it the possibility of detecting market forces.

Dual effect of nucleotides on P2Y receptors.

The interaction of ADP, 2MeSADP, and ADPbetaS with the adenine nucleotide receptor P2Y1 in the hP2Y1-1321N1 cell line and of UDP with a receptor or receptors recognizing pyrimidine nucleotides in NG108-15 cells was studied over a wide range ofligand concentrations. Bell-shaped dose-response curves for stimulation of phosphoinositide hydrolysis were obtained in these cells. This dual behavior of the agonists studied was characterized by two dissociation constants, K(agon) and K(antag), which quantify the agonistic and antagonistic activity of these ligands and can be compared with the conventional EC50 and IC50 values, respectively. The data revealed a common pattern of agonistic and antagonistic behavior of nucleoside diphosphates and their derivatives at these two types of P2Y receptors, pointing to some similar properties of their nucleotide binding sites.

Quantitative and qualitative differences between adult and juvenile agonistic behavior

The behavioral interaction of juvenile male rats was compared to that of adults. It was found that there are clear differences both in the quantity and the quality of the agonistic behavior. Several behavioral elements, which have been considered as playful in previous studies, occurred more in juvenile interaction, while some other items characteristic of severe agonistic behavior were more frequent in the interaction of adults. Sequential analysis of behavior items also revealed that there are two patterns of agonistic behavior in rats. While juvenile rats showed the behavior pattern labelled "play-fighting" in previous studies, adult rats, on the other hand, showed both the play-like agonistic behavior pattern and the "serious fighting" pattern. The possible relationship between agonistic behavior among littermates and sexual behavior is also discussed.

Partitioning the Components of Sexual Selection: Attractiveness and Agonistic Behaviour in Male Wax Moths, Achroia grisella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

AbstractTwo components of sexual selection in the lesser wax moth, Achroia grisella, are clearly defined: females choose males based on characters of their ultrasonic advertisement signals, and males display agonistic behaviour patterns in contests over signalling stations. We conducted a series of laboratory trials to determine whether successes in these two sexual selection arenas were related. Our trials showed that winners in contests over signalling stations were characterized by earlier initiation of both signalling and aggression. These characteristics may indicate higher levels of ‘motivation,’ but it is unclear whether this level is a fixed trait. There was no relationship, however, between any measure of a male's attractiveness to females and his success in winning competition trials. Thus, inter‐ and intra‐sexual selection may be acting on different, uncorrelated traits in A. grisella.