Patriarchal Norms Research Articles

Feminizing Patriarchy: Christian Churches and Gender Inequality in Rural Africa

Abstract In dialogue with the cross-national scholarship on gender and religion, the study uses a unique combination of rich qualitative and quantitative data from a predominantly Christian rural sub-Saharan setting to examine how churches modify, yet also sustain and even reinforce, patriarchal norms. It shows how churches replace the traditional, extended family-based model of gender inequality with a pseudo-modern model of individualized conjugal dependency. Although men increasingly disengage from the religious space, the growing feminization of that space does not translate into a more gender-egalitarian narrative: the church nurtures women’s agency yet also channels it to rearrange and reassert their subservience. To acquire legitimacy, church women are pressured to act as collective articulators, promoters, and guarantors of neo-patriarchal values and orders, and in particular, as builders and saviors of matrimonial integrity and viability. These dynamics reflect and are an integral part of the broader gendered constraints and precarities of contemporary rural society.

A blessing in disguise? The socio-economic impact of Covid-19 on urban women in Zimbabwe

The Covid-19 pandemic that broke out in 2019 was one of the largest epidemics in human history after the Spanish flu of 1918-1919 (Trilla, Trilla and Daer, 2008). Its spread across Africa, and Zimbabwe in particular, shook economies and disrupted social structures, severely affecting the mental health of the populace. However, calamities like Covid-19 are hardly gender-neutral. While Covid-19 had negative psychosocial and economic impacts on all gender groups, women suffered disproportionately from the socio-economic and psychological toll of the epidemic. Using qualitative research methods based on interviews and observations in Harare Zimbabwe, this article explores the experiences of urban Zimbabwean women during the Covid-19 pandemic. The outbreak of covid-19 and the consequential lockdowns had a marked disruptive effect on urban formal and informal sources of livelihoods than it had on the largely subsistence rural economy. We, therefore, analyse the urban socio-cultural and economic contexts that shaped women's daily experiences in the context of Covid-19 and how this affected their economic and psychological situation. We aver that while Covid-19 made women 'beasts of burden' who had to provide for the household and family, it also served as a means of social reconstruction and provided opportunities for women's social and economic advancement and long-term psychological well-being. Covid-19 broke down and weakened the manipulative patriarchal socio-cultural norms that excluded women from economic and social advancement. Using the neo-dependency analytical framework, this article contends that while crises worsen conditions for vulnerable groups, there should also be space to celebrate the breaking of exploitative social structures that have kept women in subservient positions for centuries. By exposing the weaknesses of patriarchy, Covid-19 signalled the development of a new social order that recognises and celebrates women's courage, strengths, and resilience in times of crisis.

Gender Diversity Among Young Adolescents: Are Gender Attitudes, Sexual Orientation, Gender Roles, Gender Identity and Sex Assigned at Birth Associated With Liking to Become a Wo/Man and the Body Image of Young Adolescents in Belgium?

This study aims to understand how gender diversity and gender attitudes are linked to the sexual well-being of young adolescents. Data was collected among 561 adolescents in secondary schools in Flanders and binary logistic regressions were performed. Gender diversity was conceptualized as gender identity, gender expression, sex assigned at birth, sexual orientation and personal gender attitudes. Whereas “like to become a wo/man” and body image were used as measures for sexual well-being. Age and migration were added as covariates.The data illustrates that gender diversity is present among young adolescents and that it can be linked to young adolescent’s body image and liking to become a wo/man. In addition, it shows how diverse sets of gender attitudes are differently associated with sexual well-being outcomes. The findings also suggest the internalization of patriarchal and heterosexual societal norms by the respondents. The results indicate an association between on the one hand gender diversity and gender attitudes and on the other hand adolescent sexual well-being. Furthermore, it suggests that gender transformative research and programs that aim to improve adolescent sexual health and well-being should carefully choose their gender focus and invest in improving gender equity beyond the individual level. Additional research is needed to investigate the association between gender diversity and adolescent sexual wellbeing among diverse sexual well-being conceptualizations and specific groups (gender, ethnic, and others) of young adolescents.

Pemberdayaan Perempuan melalui Pendidikan Islam Progresif Suud Sarim Karimullah: Analisis Strukturalisme dan Implikasinya

This study aims to explore the role of Progressive Islamic Education in women's empowerment from the perspective of Suud Sarim Karimullah. It employs a qualitative research methodology, focusing on a literature review that includes an analysis of the works of Suud Sarim Karimullah and related literature, such as relevant books and journals, analyzed based on structuralism theory. This study demonstrates that Progressive Islamic Education, which combines fundamental Islamic principles with modern values such as gender equality and human rights, can enhance women's access to quality education. This education not only empowers women in terms of education but also increases their participation in the workforce and political decision-making. Additionally, Progressive Islamic Education helps to overcome social and cultural barriers, as well as gender stereotypes that limit women's roles. By involving the Muslim community, including religious leaders and families, Progressive Islamic Education can foster positive change in society. The impact of women's empowerment through Progressive Islamic Education is evident in the improvement of economic well-being, poverty reduction, and increased social stability. Structuralism analysis shows that Progressive Islamic Education can shape social structures that support change, address patriarchal norms, and promote sustainable gender equality. Therefore, from the perspective of Suud Sarim Karimullah, Progressive Islamic Education is an effective tool for women's empowerment and the development of an inclusive and just society.

‘I call it self-love now’: Indian Women’s Experiences of Self-Partnering

ABSTRACT Coupledom, particularly marriage, is depicted as aspirational for women, but this article documents the experiences of Indian women who have resisted patriarchal norms around wedlock and who identify as ‘self-partnered’. In-depth interviews were conducted with 10 women between the ages of 25 and 69 living in various Indian cities. The article explores participants’ interpretations of self-partnering, the influences that led them to choose this identity, their experiences in past relationships, and their views on marriage and motherhood. The interviews were analysed through the interpretative phenomenological approach with reference to a feminist lens. The findings revealed that the participants considered self-partnering to be an act of self-reliance and personal fulfilment. Contrary to popular stereotypes, these women were neither phobic about relationships nor resistant to having a companion. Their choice was more about wanting to be with partners who could provide what they needed in a relationship. Parental support and financial independence were cited as factors that enabled self-partnering. The participants’ narratives revealed self-partnering to be much more than the reductive ideas associated with it. The study enriches the social-cultural critique of the evolution of social institutions such as marriage that have traditionally been embedded in patriarchy and heteronormativity.

The Women Leadership in Discourse of the Indonesian Wayang Golek

Puppets are not only entertainment but also reflect philosophical values. Arimbi Ngadeg Ratu, an Indonesian rod puppet, is full of wise advice, moral teachings, and philosophical phrases about politics and power. In emphasizing gender and leadership, women occupy roles defined in their specific positions within the hierarchy and simultaneously function within the constraints of their gender roles. This study uses the Gadamer hermeneutic for interpretation; the method is based on experience, history, and tradition from a cultural feminism perspective. Research findings show the role and position of women as mothers who nurture and educate their children to be good leaders. Women have complementary roles and positions in their families, but they must be able to be independent. Women also have the right to assemble, rehearse, lead an organization, and have the freedom to make their own choices. Women also have the same abilities as men to become political leaders and have equal opportunities to compete for power. Leadership roles for women are achieved by fighting in the realm of patriarchal norms. Reframing the image of women's political leadership from a gender viewpoint that considers keeping values and principles an operation of feminism seems proper.

A PORTRAIT OF SELFSECURE WOMEN AMIDST INSECURITIES IN PREETHI NAIR'S ONE HUNDRED SHADES OF WHITE

Indian women writers of twentieth century mainly spot light on casteism, silent suffering women who become the victims of the atrocities of dominant men, child marriage and constrained widowhood. Indeed the scenerio has been changed in the contemporary century where the focus is on women who start questioning the traditional patriarchal norms and search for their self idendity. It is quite true in the case of Preethi Nair who depicts women rising as phoenix from the ashes of victimisation. The women characters of Nair's One Hundred Shades of White though abandoned by their husbands, rejected, betrayed by their beloveds, put in an alien world where cultural conflicts arise, threatened by the harsh realities of life and no matter what, but rise to the occasion to prove themselves. They are exhibits of empowered women who are selfsecure amidst insecurities and so leading a dignified living.

Positioning and Resistance: a Narrative Inquiry of Undocumented Mexican Domestic Workers in New York City

This study explores the life experiences and empowerment of five emblematic undocumented Mexican domestic workers in New York City (NYC). Employing identity as a conceptual framework, we delve into the intricate aspects of the participants' lives, utilizing narrative inquiry and feminist methodologies to analyze the dynamics between their performative identities and the prevailing ideologies concerning undocumented immigrants. The narratives unveil feelings of rejection and exclusion among the participants in NYC. Additionally, the focus is on their efforts to challenge societal norms, resist dominant ideologies, and devise strategies for resistance. All five participants express a sense of empowerment derived from their experiences, enabling them to reconstruct their past and present themselves as resilient, proactive individuals, activists, and proficient English speakers. Ultimately, the findings demonstrate how the participants assert their narrative identities, reclaiming their subjectivities and subverting patriarchal norms by transcending conventional societal roles.

“This Bra Protects me Better than the Military”: Bodies and Protests in the Myanmar Spring Revolution

This article explores the gendered dynamics of revolutionary movements through a focus on women’s bodies as tools of resistance and protest. In the Myanmar Spring Revolution, gendered relations of power articulate with military authority to engender both women’s activism and military responses. To maintain power, the Myanmar military have sought to regulate women’s behaviour – and quell the protest – through attention to women’s bodies, sexuality, and reproductive potential. In response, women activists have mobilised against both state control and the violation of women’s bodies in imaginative and transgressive ways, using their bodies as well as gendered artefacts to subvert patriarchal and military norms. This analysis shows how women’s bodies constitute both the material object of protest – in the virtual and physical spheres – and the subject of resistance, aiming to challenge gendered logics. It means that the gendered body must be taken seriously in studies on revolutions and protests. The integral yet historically overlooked role of women in Myanmar’s revolutionary movements necessitates a gender-conscious analytical lens to fully comprehend the transformative potential and the power dynamics of such upheavals.

Trauma, Memory, and the Politics of Mourning in New Albanian Film from Kosovo

A quarter century since the wars of Yugoslav dissolution were ended in 1999 by NATO bombardment, film production observing the wars through a critical lens can still be called quite meager. In the past few years, however, an increasing number of Albanian filmmakers from Kosovo have emerged, exposing the consequences of the war as well as the continuing legacy of strict patriarchal norms and post-war lethal capitalism. In the films discussed in this article – Zana (2019) by Antoneta Kastrati, Hive (2021) by Blerta Basholli, and Three Windows and a Hanging (2014) by Isa Qosja – the suffering of the female protagonists is pitted against the collective trauma and thus coopted by the same nationalist-­capitalist thanatopolitics that created the conditions for the wars, and continues to regulate, restrict and repress survivors’ memory and mourning practices. The films’ female protagonists defy these restrictions, resisting through silent stoicism and ‘agonistic mourning’.

Patriarchal Influence on Contraceptive Use and Reproductive Decision Making: A Study on Selected Areas in Sirajganj District

This study explores the relationship between contraceptive use, reproductive decision-making, and patriarchal influence in rural Bangladesh, focusing on deeply rooted gender norms and power structures. Using a cross-sectional qualitative and explorative research methodology, data were collected from 50 respondents, both male and female, in Chandaikona and Debrajpur villages in Sirajganj District through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The findings reveal significant gender disparities in contraceptive use, with women bearing the primary responsibility due to societal norms and male dominance. While previous research has emphasized women's roles in family planning, this study uniquely addresses how patriarchal norms influence men’s involvement in contraceptive use. The results show that men, despite their significant role in decision-making, are reluctant to actively engage in family planning, perpetuating traditional gender roles. Additionally, instances of domestic abuse and coercion in reproductive decisions highlight women's vulnerability within patriarchal households. The socio-cultural stigma surrounding male contraceptive use further reinforces the imbalance, supporting the belief that contraception is mainly a woman's responsibility. The study underscores the urgent need for inclusive and equitable reproductive health programs that engage both genders. By addressing patriarchal norms and advocating for comprehensive reproductive health education, Bangladesh can progress towards a more egalitarian society where individuals have autonomy in making reproductive decisions. The findings emphasize the necessity of interventions to empower women and challenge traditional gender roles, ensuring more balanced and informed contraceptive practices within communities.

A Feminist Reading on the Exploration of Female Identity and Sexuality in Sri Lankan Cinema: A Case Study of Asoka Handagama’s Selected Works

Since the emergence of the feminist movement, the distortion of feminine identity and sexuality is profoundly discoursed in relation to literature and other genres of art. This research has endeavoured to articulate how female identity and sexuality is portrayed in Sri Lankan cinema with reference to selected work of veteran filmmaker, Asoka Handagama. The sample comprises of the award-winning movies, “Thani Thatuwen Piyambanna” (Flying with One Wing, 2002), “Aksharaya” (A Letter of Fire, 2005) and “Aege Aesa Aga” (Let Her Cry, 2016) which features three significant female characters and their plight in patriarchal society. The researcher has deployed Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze Theory which examines the voyeuristic and scopophilic representation of women in media along with the Lacanian and Freudian concepts of gaze as the theoretical approach of the study. The research was predominantly conducted utilizing the qualitative approach while textual analysis and interviews focusing on the director of the selected films, critics and academics were the major tools of primary data collection. The secondary data was collected through research publications, newspaper articles, the internet and magazines. The hermeneutic approach was deployed in interpreting the sample and the collected data focusing on the connection between the selected sample and the broader discourses. Even though Laura Mulvey exemplifies that women are always being projected as passive objects in cinema, the findings of the study reveal that the selected sample represents the female figure as a more assertive and emphatic entity regardless of the persistent patriarchal norms.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DYNAMICS AND COPING MECHANISMS OF WOMEN INVOLVED IN ISLAMIC POLYGAMOUS MARRIAGES

This study explores the coping mechanisms and religious beliefs employed by women in polygamous relationships to manage emotional distress, and the extent to which this approach challenges or reinforces patriarchal structures within these relationships. Data collected a closed Facebook group for Muslim women only reveal that women in polygamous relationships often experience psychological and emotional distress. To cope, they commonly resort to religious faith, acceptance of fate, and compromise with co-wives. While these strategies help manage emotional distress, they can potentially reinforce patriarchal structures within these relationships. The research provides a nuanced perspective, arguing that these coping mechanisms can be seen both as a form of resistance against and an acceptance of patriarchal norms. The study also underscores the need for further research into factors such as stress levels, coping skills, and marital factors that can impact behavioral, emotional, and cognitive outcomes in polygamous marriages. To conclude, in polygamous relationships, women often use avoidance and religious justification as coping mechanisms. While these strategies provide temporary relief or spiritual comfort, they don't address the long-term psychological harm or inherent gender inequalities.

Homophobic beliefs and attitudes among mid-adolescent boys: exploring the ideas of hybrid masculinities.

Homophobia is well-documented as key to social regulation of masculine behavior and practices in Western settings. Yet, empirical data from a number of Western settings has shown a decline in overt homophobic attitudes in the past decade, leading some to suggest that the nature of masculinities is also changing. However, theorizing on the changing nature of masculinities among adolescents has received limited quantitative attention. Research is needed to better understand shifts in adolescent masculinities in contemporary Western settings. In this paper, we investigate the application of one newer approach to explore masculinities in context - hybrid masculinities - in a sample of cisgender, heterosexual, mid-adolescent boys in one province in Western Canada (N = 873, mean age (SD) = 14.39 (0.37)). Data were collected from nine cohorts of grade 9 youth over a 10-year period (2013-2022) as part of the baseline survey of an ongoing evaluation of a gender-transformative healthy relationships program. We hypothesized that if the ideas of hybrid masculinities held in our sample, we would find that overt homophobic attitudes and adherence to related patriarchal norms (e.g., avoidance of femininity) would decline over this period, but that the use of homophobic name-calling would remain differentiated in terms of to whom it was directed (e.g., a friend, someone they thought was gay). We did find a significant decline in homophobic attitudes and norms related to emotional restriction and avoidance of femininity over the 10-year period, but also found that homophobic name-calling remained differentiated, with significantly higher name-calling toward a friend than toward someone the youth thought was gay. Thus, our hypotheses were supported. We discuss the implications of our findings for future theory and research on understanding adolescent masculinities in context.

Voicing The Reality of Colonialized Women in The Novel ‘Belenggu’ By Armijn Pane

This study explores the representation of women's subjugation during the colonial period in Indonesia through Armijn Pane's novel "Belenggu." Utilizing an interdisciplinary approach that integrates literary sociology, feminist literary criticism, and postcolonial studies, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of how the novel reflects the author's critique of patriarchal societal structures and colonial impacts on indigenous women. The analysis focuses on the main character, Sukartini, highlighting her struggle for equality and autonomy. Despite being educated and progressive, Sukartini is depicted as trapped within socio-cultural and political constraints, influenced by entrenched patriarchal norms and colonial domination. This study reveals the dual layers of oppression faced by women, emphasizing the compounded struggles due to both gender and colonial subjugation. By examining Sukartini's character, the research illustrates how deeply ingrained patriarchal norms and colonial dominance restrict women's roles and voices. The findings contribute to Indonesian literary sociology by expanding the scope of analysis to include gender and postcolonial issues, underscoring the importance of examining literary works through multiple theoretical lenses. Moreover, the study highlights the role of literature in spreading awareness, providing social critique, and inspiring advocacy for gender equality and justice. "Belenggu" serves as a poignant critique of historical and ongoing gender inequality, reinforcing the relevance of literary analysis in understanding and addressing complex social issues. This research offers a nuanced perspective on the socio-political contexts shaping narratives, advocating for continued scholarly attention to literature as a means of promoting social change and a more equitable society.

Gendered mobility strategies and challenges to sustainable travel—patriarchal norms controlling women's everyday transportation

Sweden is a country with an international reputation for gender equality. The political goal of gender equality is based on feminist analysis of what constitutes a just society according to gender and the fight against patriarchal norms. Despite policy recommendations and legislation that counteract discrimination against women, women still fear traveling by public transport and being out in the evenings. This indicates that Swedish society still has patriarchal norms to deal with. The article is based on qualitative interviews and data retrieved from the Swedish National Statistics, SCB. The interviews explored mobility practices and strategies, experiences with different modes of transport, and reliability, affordability, and comfort of the mobility options available. The results shows that travel choices for women are affected by their concerns about safety and related necessary adaptation to situations identified as threatening. Despite the “mythical mantra” of the gender equal society, Sweden share the patriarchal norms with other countries, that delimits women's use and access to public space and public transport.

Is Islam the Cause of Muslim Women's Subordination? A Historical Study of Gender in The Old Age and The Classical Islamic Period 7th Century

This article critically examines the historical context of gender equality in Islam, seeking to dispel the misconception that women are considered inferior to men within the Islamic framework. Utilizing historical approaches, the discussion unfolds in three key segments. First, it delves into the position of women in pre-Islamic societies, encompassing the Greek, Christian, Jewish, and Arabian periods. Subsequently, it explores the status of women following the advent of Islam, focusing on the Prophet Muhammad's era, particularly during the 7th century. Furthermore, the article presents notable female figures from Islamic history as exemplars of gender inclusivity within Islam. The conclusion posits that Islam, rather than being inherently discriminatory, has been misrepresented due to the perpetuation of patriarchal cultural norms. This study offers valuable insights into the complex interplay between religious teachings and socio-cultural dynamics that shape perceptions of gender within Islamic societies.

THEORISING GENDERED MOTIVATIONS TO STREET VENDING: A STUDY OF WOMEN VENDORS IN DELHI, INDIA

The informal economy is characterised by severe decent work deficits that disproportionately impact women (ILO, 2002a, 2013c). This research identifies multiple dimensions of gendered segmentation within the street vending sector in Delhi arising from an interplay of structural factors experienced differently by women across the life course. Analysis of 105 semi-structured interviews with vendors in Delhi highlights the role of patriarchal norms in public and private spheres in structuring womens entry into street vending. Key issues to access jobs in the formal sector include the patriarchal norms, stigmatisation and societal expectations that limit womens access to education, their ability to work and the type of work they engage in, thus creating segmentation in the labour market. This study concludes that the structural conditions lead to transitions, life events and turning points in womens lives, determining their access to employment in the formal or informal sector.

Komunikasi Perempuan dalam Dakwah (Menciptakan Ruang untuk Representasi dan Kepemimpinan)

This study explores the leadership role of women in da'wah with a focus on representation and transformational leadership. This study uses desk research methods to analyse relevant literature, with the aim of understanding how the representation of women in various forms of da'wah communication-such as lectures, writings, and social media-can influence people's perceptions of women's leadership capabilities. The research findings show that strong and positive representations of women in da'wah can change people's perceptions and open up opportunities for women to take on leadership roles. Key challenges faced in creating space for women's representation and leadership include persisting patriarchal norms, resistance from conservative parties, and limited access and resources. This analysis highlights that women's transformational leadership, characterised by a clear vision, attention to the individual, intellectual stimulation, and idealised influence, has great potential to bring about positive change in religious communities. The impact of this transformational leadership includes changing gender perceptions and stereotypes, increasing community participation, empowering individuals, and enhancing innovation and creativity. By addressing these challenges and supporting women's transformational leadership, religious communities can become more inclusive, just and dynamic. This research confirms the importance of strong representation and support for women in da'wah leadership to achieve significant social and cultural change.

Feminism in Tagore's “Gitanjali”: A Comparative Analysis with Western Feminist Concepts

Rabindranath Tagore's “Gitanjali” is a collection of 103 poems that primarily focuses on the poet's spiritual journey and his relationship with the divine. However, embedded within this spiritual discourse are subtle yet profound feminist themes that critique patriarchal norms and celebrate the intrinsic value of women. This paper explores the feminist elements in “Gitanjali”, illustrating how Tagore's work contributes to feminist literature by advocating for gender equality and recognizing the spiritual and societal importance of women. Additionally, it compares these themes with key concepts in Western feminism to highlight their universal relevance.