Photon Path Research Articles

Final multiplicity of a QED cascade in generalized Heitler model

We consider a generalized Heitler model for a QED cascade. An exact formula for the final number of leptons is obtained by solving the kinetic equations. We demonstrate that in such a model the final number of leptons does not depend on photon and lepton mean free paths. We derive approximate formulas for the main characteristics of cascades at high energy, including the final number of leptons and the cascade depth. We show that in general the final number of leptons is asymptotically proportional to the energy of a seed particle. It is also demonstrated how the original Heitler model is reproduced as a special case. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

The 21-cm signal during the end stages of reionization

ABSTRACT During the epoch of reionization (EoR), the 21-cm signal allows direct observation of the neutral hydrogen (H i) in the intergalactic medium (IGM). In the post-reionization era, this signal instead probes H i in galaxies, which traces the dark matter density distribution. With new numerical simulations, we investigated the end stages of reionization to elucidate the transition of our Universe into the post-reionization era. Our models are consistent with the latest high-redshift measurements, including ultraviolet (UV) luminosity functions up to redshift $\simeq$8. Notably, these models consistently reproduced the evolution of the UV photon background, which is constrained from Lyman-$\alpha$ absorption spectra. We studied the dependence of this background on the nature of photon sinks in the IGM, requiring mean free path of UV photons to be $\sim$10 comoving-megaparsecs (cMpc) during the EoR that increases gradually with time during late stages ($z\lesssim 6$). Our models revealed that the reionization of the IGM transitioned from an inside-out to an outside-in process when the Universe is less than 0.01 per cent neutral. During this epoch, the 21-cm signal also shifted from probing predominantly the H i in the IGM to that in galaxies. Furthermore, we identified a statistically significant number of large neutral islands (with sizes up to 40 cMpc) persisting until very late stages ($5 \lesssim z \lesssim 6$) that can imprint features in Lyman-$\alpha$ absorption spectra and also produce a knee-like feature in the 21-cm power spectrum.

Robust optimization and assessment of dynamic trajectory and mixed-beam arc radiotherapy: a preliminary study

Objective. Dynamic trajectory radiotherapy (DTRT) and dynamic mixed-beam arc therapy (DYMBARC) exploit non-coplanarity and, for DYMBARC, simultaneously optimized photon and electron beams. Margin concepts to account for set-up uncertainties during delivery are ill-defined for electron fields. We develop robust optimization for DTRT&DYMBARC and compare dosimetric plan quality and robustness for both techniques and both optimization strategies for four cases. Approach. Cases for different treatment sites and clinical target volume (CTV) to planning target volume (PTV) margins, m , were investigated. Dynamic gantry-table-collimator photon paths were optimized to minimize PTV/organ-at-risk (OAR) overlap in beam’s-eye-view and minimize potential photon multileaf collimator (MLC) travel. For DYMBARC plans, non-isocentric partial electron arcs or static fields with shortened source-to-surface distance (80 cm) were added. Direct aperture optimization (DAO) was used to simultaneously optimize MLC-based intensity modulation for both photon and electron beams yielding deliverable PTV-based DTRT&DYMBARC plans. Robust-optimized plans used the same paths/arcs/fields. DAO with stochastic programming was used for set-up uncertainties with equal weights in all translational directions and magnitude δ such that m= 0.7δ . Robust analysis considered random errors in all directions with or without an additional systematic error in the worst 3D direction for the adjacent OARs. Main results. Electron contribution was 7%–41% of target dose depending on the case and optimization strategy for DYMBARC. All techniques achieved similar CTV coverage in the nominal (no error) scenario. OAR sparing was overall better in the DYMBARC plans than in the DTRT plans and DYMBARC plans were generally more robust to the considered uncertainties. OAR sparing was better in the PTV-based than in robust-optimized plans for OARs abutting or overlapping with the target volume, but more affected by uncertainties. Significance. Better plan robustness can be achieved with robust optimization than with margins. Combining electron arcs/fields with non-coplanar photon trajectories further improves robustness and OAR sparing.

Robustness of direct measurements of the mean free path of ionizing photons in the epoch of reionization

ABSTRACT Measurements of the mean free path of Lyman-continuum photons in the intergalactic medium during the epoch of reionization can help constrain the nature of the sources as well as sinks of hydrogen-ionizing radiation. A recent approach to this measurement has been to utilize composite spectra of multiple quasars at $z\sim 6$, and infer the mean free path after correcting the spectra for the presence of quasar proximity zones. This has revealed not only a steep drop in the mean free path from $z=5$ to $z=6$, but also potentially a mild tension with reionization simulations. We critically examine such direct measurements of the mean free path for biases due to quasar environment, incomplete reionization, and quasar proximity zones. Using cosmological radiative transfer simulations of reionization combined with one-dimensional radiative transfer calculations of quasar proximity zones, we find that the bias in the mean free path due to overdensities around quasars is minimal at $z\sim 6$. Patchiness of reionization at this redshift also does not affect the measurements significantly. Fitting our model to the data results in a mean free path of $\lambda _{\mathrm{mfp}}=1.49^{+0.47}_{-0.52}$ pMpc at $z=6$, which is consistent with the recent measurements in the literature, indicating robustness with respect to the modelling of quasar proximity zones. We also compare various ways in which the mean free path has been defined in simulations before the end of reionization. Overall, our finding is that recent measurements of the mean free path appear to be robust relative to several sources of potential bias.

Determining ideal offsets of spatially offset Raman spectroscopy for transcutaneous measurements-A Monte Carlo study.

Spatially offset Raman spectroscopy (SORS) is valuable for noninvasive bone assessment but requires a clearer understanding of how offset distances influence detection depth. To address this, our study devised a forward-adjoint Monte Carlo multi-layer (MCML) model to simulate photon paths in SORS, aiming to determine optimal offsets for various tissue types. We examined photon migration at offsets between 0 and 15 mm against layered phantoms of differing thicknesses and compositions to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio for bone layers. The findings highlight that optimal offsets are contingent on tissue characteristics: a metacarpal beneath 2.5 mm of tissue had an ideal offset of 6.7 mm, while a tibia with 5 mm of soft tissue required 10-11 mm. This precise calibration of SORS via MCML modeling promises substantial improvements in bone health diagnostics and potential for expansive medical applications.

Probing cosmic neutrino background charge via unconventional interferometer

If neutrinos carry non-zero electric charge, they would interact directly with photons. This would induce a phase shift along the photon path in the optical experiment. We propose a novel idea to detect this phase shift induced by cosmic neutrino background (CNB) and the photon interaction using laser interferometry experiment. We show that our setup can probe the CNB neutrino charge in the order of 10−18e−10−17e. This is quite competitive with the existing upper bound on neutrino charge from both laboratory experiments and astrophysical observations.

Cinematic Rendering of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumours: Opportunities for Clinical Implementation: Part 2: Preoperative Planning and Evaluation of Metastatic Disease.

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PNETs) are a rare subset of pancreatic tumours that have historically comprised up to 3% of all clinically detected pancreatic tumours. In recent decades, however, advancements in imaging have led to an increased incidental detection rate of PNETs and imaging has played an increasingly central role in the initial diagnostics and surgical planning of these tumours. Cinematic rendering (CR) is a 3D post-processing technique that generates highly photorealistic images through more realistically modelling the path of photons through the imaged volume. This allows for more comprehensive visualization, description, and interpretation of anatomical structures. In this 2-part review article, we present the first description of the various CR appearances of PNETs in the reported literature while providing commentary on the unique clinical opportunities afforded by the adjunctive utilization of CR in the workup of these rare tumours. This second instalment focuses on the applications of CR in optimizing preoperative planning of PNETs.

Cinematic Rendering of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumours: Opportunities for Clinical Implementation: Part 1: Tumour Detection and Characterization.

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PNETs) are a rare subset of pancreatic tumours that have historically comprised up to 3% of all clinically detected pancreatic tumours. In recent decades, however, advancements in imaging have led to an increased incidental detection rate of PNETs and imaging has played an increasingly central role in the initial diagnostics and surgical planning of these tumours. Cinematic rendering (CR) is a 3D post-processing technique that generates highly photorealistic images through more realistically modelling the path of photons through the imaged volume. This allows for more comprehensive visualization, description, and interpretation of anatomical structures. In this 2-part review article, we present the first description of the various CR appearances of PNETs in the reported literature while providing commentary on the unique clinical opportunities afforded by the adjunctive utilization of CR in the workup of these rare tumours. The first of these 2 instalments highlights the utility of CR in optimizing PNET detection and characterization.

Angular correlations of cosmic microwave background spectrum distortions from photon diffusion

ABSTRACT During cosmic recombination, charged particles bind into neutral atoms and the mean free path of photons rapidly increases, resulting in the familiar diffusion damping of primordial radiation temperature variations. An additional effect is a small photon spectrum distortion, because photons arriving from a particular sky direction were originally in thermal equilibrium at various spatial locations with different temperatures; the combination of these different blackbody temperature distributions results in a spectrum with a Compton y-distortion. Using the approximation that photons had zero mean free path prior to their second-to-last scattering, we derive an expression for the resulting y-distortion, and compute the angular correlation function of the diffusion y-distortion and its cross-correlation with the square of the photon temperature fluctuation. Detection of the cross-correlation is within reach of existing arcminute-resolution microwave background experiments such as the Atacama Cosmology Telescope and the South Pole Telescope.

Exploring the non-Gaussianity of the cosmic infrared background and its weak gravitational lensing

ABSTRACT Gravitational lensing deflects the paths of photons, altering the statistics of cosmic backgrounds and distorting their information content. We take the cosmic infrared background (CIB), which provides plentiful information about galaxy formation and evolution, as an example to probe the effect of lensing on non-Gaussian statistics. Using the Websky simulations, we first quantify the non-Gaussianity of the CIB, revealing additional detail on top of its well-measured power spectrum. To achieve this, we use needlet-like multipole-band filters to calculate the variance and higher-point correlations. Using our simulations, we show the two-, three- and four-point spectra, and compare our calculated power spectra and bispectra to Planck values. We then lens the CIB, shell-by-shell with corresponding convergence maps, to capture the broad redshift extent of both the CIB and its lensing convergence. The lensing of the CIB changes the three- and four-point functions by a few tens of per cent at large scales, unlike with the power spectrum, which changes by less than two per cent. We expand our analyses to encompass the full intensity probability distribution functions (PDFs) involving all n-point correlations as a function of scale. In particular, we use the relative entropy between lensed and unlensed PDFs to create a spectrum of templates that can allow estimation of lensing. The underlying CIB model is missing the important role of star bursting, which we test by adding a stochastic lognormal term to the intensity distributions. The novel aspects of our filtering and lensing pipeline should prove useful for any radiant background, including line intensity maps.

Approximate solution to the photon migration problem in a turbid medium based on the path-integral approach

The functions characterizing the directional and spatial distribution of photons propagating through an infinite scattering medium can be expressed in the form of specific path-integrals. However, these are not solvable analytically and have to be approximated by a more suitable form, while we require the preservation of only a few relaxed constraints imposed on the photon transport. The path integral solutions, i.e. the sought distribution functions, are found in the form of simple closed-form expressions. They are compared with the standard diffusion solution and with the second-order cumulant approximation, which solves an equivalent problem. Photon path length profiles of the distribution functions obtained by the path-integral approximation and the cumulant approximation are almost identical, but the first formulae are much simpler. The numerical examples indicate that the path-integral solution could serve as an improvement of the diffusion equation solution under appropriate conditions.

Airborne lidar measurements of atmospheric CO2 column concentrations to cloud tops made during the 2017 ASCENDS/ABoVE campaign

Abstract. We measured the column-averaged atmospheric CO2 mixing ratio (XCO2) to a variety of cloud tops with an airborne pulsed multi-wavelength integrated path differential absorption (IPDA) lidar during NASA's 2017 ASCENDS/ABoVE airborne campaign. Measurements of height-resolved atmospheric backscatter profiles allow this lidar to retrieve XCO2 to cloud tops, as well as to the ground, with accurate knowledge of the photon path length. We validated these measurements with those from an onboard in situ CO2 sensor during spiral-down maneuvers. These lidar measurements were 2–3 times better than those from previous airborne campaigns due to our using a wavelength step-locked laser transmitter and a high-efficiency detector for this campaign. Precisions of 0.6 parts per million (ppm) were achieved for 10 s average measurements to mid-level clouds and 0.9 ppm to low-level clouds at the top of the planetary boundary layer. This study demonstrates the lidar's capability to fill in XCO2 measurement gaps in cloudy regions and to help resolve the vertical and horizontal distributions of atmospheric CO2. Future airborne campaigns and spaceborne missions with this capability can be used to improve atmospheric transport modeling, flux estimation and carbon data assimilation.

Enhancement of light absorption by ultra-thin film solar cells using graded gratings

In this study, we developed a novel method based on uniform and graded gratings on the front surface of ultra-thin film Si solar cells to enhance light absorption. The proposed gratings were designed in two configurations comprising penetration into the active layer and placement on it. These structures enhance absorption by scattering and diffracting light, and enlarging the optical path for photons. Simulations based on the finite element method and finite difference time domain technique showed that the graded gratings could significantly enhance absorption in the visible and infrared regions. The maximum current density and efficiency achieved for graded gratings placed on the top surface of the active layer were 21.7 mA/cm2 and 23.9%, respectively (47.6% and 48.4% higher compared with the reference cell).

Manipulation of path state based on spatiotemporal dielectric metasurface.

In this work, a spatiotemporal metasurface is proposed to manipulate the path of photons flexibly. The spatial modulation is induced by the rectangle silicon units aligned on silica in a manner with a phase gradient only for y-polarized photons, and the temporal modulation is contributed by the pumps of constructing Kerr dynamic gratings. By quantizing designed metasurfaces, the analytical solutions of output photon states can be derived correspondingly. Reversal design could be implemented by tailoring the profile of higher harmonics to infer the intensity of pumps, size of meta-atoms, and initial state. The path-polarization entanglement and correlations of output photons are realized, and then a CNOT gate is obtained by utilizing the deflection of the photon path. This work provides a scheme to deal with the spatiotemporal metasurfaces and expands the applications of metasurfaces in the quantum realm.

A novel analytical method to calibrate cylindrical side-hole type sodium iodide scintillation detectors

Geometrical and absolute efficiencies play a significant role in the calibration of radioactivity measuring systems, which are regularly complicated. A novel analytical method of efficiency calibration is proposed for cylindrical side-hole type sodium iodide scintillation detectors. Cylindrical side-hole type sodium iodide scintillation detectors have a cylindrical side-hole passing perpendicularly on the sodium iodide crystal axis, which is gathered in the aluminum cover. This detector is a setup for low-level gamma radiation measurement, because of the close 4π solid angle correlated with it, this setup is convenient when low-energy radiation requires efficient detection. Also, the 4π gamma-ray counting is an established way for direct activity measurements and is remarkably well suited for radionuclides with complex gamma-ray spectra. This novel approach depends on the calculation of two primary factors, the photon path length inside the detector active material, and the solid angle, delimited by the radiation source-detector system. In addition, the attenuation of photons by the sodium iodide crystal covering substance is also included by determining the photon path length through this substance. The novel analytical approach calculates the total and geometrical efficiencies of this kind of detector. In comparison, the differences with the published data in the literature indicate that the current approach is favorable in the efficiency measurement of the cylindrical side-hole type sodium iodide scintillation detectors.

Quasiparticle Poisoning of Superconducting Qubits from Resonant Absorption of Pair-Breaking Photons.

The ideal superconductor provides a pristine environment for the delicate states of a quantum computer: because there is an energy gap to excitations, there are no spurious modes with which the qubits can interact, causing irreversible decay of the quantum state. As a practical matter, however, there exists a high density of excitations out of the superconducting ground state even at ultralow temperature; these are known as quasiparticles. Observed quasiparticle densities are of order 1 μm^{-3}, tens of orders of magnitude greater than the equilibrium density expected from theory. Nonequilibrium quasiparticles extract energy from the qubit mode and can induce dephasing. Here we show that a dominant mechanism for quasiparticle poisoning is direct absorption of high-energy photons at the qubit junction. We use a Josephson junction-based photon source to controllably dose qubit circuits with millimeter-wave radiation, and we use an interferometric quantum gate sequence to reconstruct the charge parity of the qubit. We find that the structure of the qubit itself acts as a resonant antenna for millimeter-wave radiation, providing an efficient path for photons to generate quasiparticles. A deep understanding of this physics will pave the way to realization of next-generation superconducting qubits that are robust against quasiparticle poisoning.

Noise Figure: Estimation of Noise Characteristics of a Radio- Photonic Path Based on the Results of Noise Figure Measurements

In radiophotonic microwave transmission systems, as in any radioelectronic systems, noise characteristics determine the potential of accuracy and range. As a measure of the difference between the noise characteristics of optoelectronic microwave signal converters from ideal ones, the use of the noise figures of the elements included in their composition is proposed. The effect of such a criterion is demonstrated by the example of the optoelectronic microwave oscillator (OEO). Based on the results of the study of the optoelectronic microwave oscillator noise parameters quantitative characteristics of the conversion of the OEO elements noise sources into phase and amplitude fluctuations of the output microwave oscillation are obtained. The analysis of the interaction of the OEO elements noise with the microwave harmonic oscillation is performed. The technique for measuring the noise conversion characteristics using the noise figure has been developed. The results of measuring characteristics of the interaction of harmonic oscillation with the optoelectronic components additive and multiplicative noise of optoelectronic components are presented. Based on the values of the noise figure, the possibilities of reducing the noise levels of microwave signal converters are evaluated and recommendations are made to reduce the influence of the noise.

Quantum optical induced-coherence tomography by a hybrid interferometer

Abstract Quantum interferometry based on induced-coherence phenomena has demonstrated the possibility of undetected-photon measurements. Perturbation in the optical path of probe photons can be detected by interference signals generated by quantum mechanically correlated twin photons propagating through a different path, possibly at a different wavelength. To the best of our knowledge, this work demonstrates for the first time a hybrid-type induced-coherence interferometer that incorporates a Mach–Zehnder-type interferometer for near-visible photons and a Michelson-type interferometer for infrared (IR) photons, based on double-pass-pumped spontaneous parametric down-conversion. This configuration enables IR optical measurements via the detection of near-visible photons and provides methods for optimizing the quality of measurements by identifying photon pairs of different origins. We theoretically identify that the induced-coherence interference visibility is approximately the same as the heralding efficiency between twin photons along the relevant spatial modes, and experimentally maximize the visibility by setting up a common reference spatial mode for IR photons. Applications to both time-domain and frequency-domain quantum optical induced-coherence tomography for three-dimensional test structures are demonstrated. The results prove the feasibility of practical undetected-photon sensing and imaging techniques based on the presented structure.

Feynman photon path integral calculations of optical reflection, diffraction, and scattering from conduction electrons

This paper describes the use of Feynman photon path integrals to compute the probability of detecting reflected, diffracted, and scattered photons at different points in space after interacting with conduction electrons. Five examples are given: (1) a thin parabolic sheet of conduction electrons (e.g. a metal mirror) that produces a sharp focus of a distant point source surrounded by the Airy diffraction pattern, (2) the loss of focusing power as the thickness of the parabolic sheet is increased and complete destructive interference for thicknesses that are an integer multiple of 1/2 the wavelength, (3) diffraction of photons entering a thin sheet from the side, (4) diffraction of photons entering the side of a sheet as its thickness is increased, and (5) the angular scattering distribution of internally generated photons in an extended volume of conduction electrons. The calculations integrated the complex probability amplitudes for photon paths from (a) a point source to (b) all points in the conduction electron volume and to (c) a point detector. At each detector position the detection probability was computed as the square of the absolute value of the integral. In general, if there is a concentration of paths that have nearly the same complex amplitude phase, reflection dominates. Otherwise, if the conduction electron volume has sharp boundaries, diffraction dominates. Isotropic scattering dominates for conduction electrons distributed throughout an extended volume, and may explain how scintillation photons in cryogenic n-type GaAs can escape total internal reflection trapping, which is essential for its high luminosity.

The null geodesics of charged and non–charged black hole in mimetic gravity

The null geodesics around the charged black hole spacetimes are investigated in the mimetic gravity framework when Einstein's gravity is coupled to a nonlinear electromagnetic field. The photon paths in nonlinear electrodynamics are geodesics of the effective metric which is determined by the background metric and the particular nonlinear theory considered. The nonlinear effects are represented by a quadruple moment and appear as a correction term to Reissner Nordstrom (RN) metric and Reissner Nordstrom-anti-de Sitter (RN–(A)dS) in cylindrical metric. Remarkably, the nonlinear effects prevent the circular orbits around black holes, and the presence of the mimetic field can change the repulsive character of dS space to the attractive one. Also, the effect of the mimetic parameter manifests itself in the stronger or weaker gravity of the black hole.