Paternal Responsiveness Research Articles

Paternal psychological response after ultrasonographic detection of structural fetal anomalies with a comparison to maternal response: a cohort study

BackgroundIn Norway almost all pregnant women attend one routine ultrasound examination. Detection of fetal structural anomalies triggers psychological stress responses in the women affected. Despite the frequent use of ultrasound examination in pregnancy, little attention has been devoted to the psychological response of the expectant father following the detection of fetal anomalies. This is important for later fatherhood and the psychological interaction within the couple. We aimed to describe paternal psychological responses shortly after detection of structural fetal anomalies by ultrasonography, and to compare paternal and maternal responses within the same couple.MethodsA prospective observational study was performed at a tertiary referral centre for fetal medicine. Pregnant women with a structural fetal anomaly detected by ultrasound and their partners (study group,n=155) and 100 with normal ultrasound findings (comparison group) were included shortly after sonographic examination (inclusion period: May 2006-February 2009). Gestational age was >12 weeks. We used psychometric questionnaires to assess self-reported social dysfunction, health perception, and psychological distress (intrusion, avoidance, arousal, anxiety, and depression): Impact of Event Scale. General Health Questionnaire and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Fetal anomalies were classified according to severity and diagnostic or prognostic ambiguity at the time of assessment.ResultsMedian (range) gestational age at inclusion in the study and comparison group was 19 (12–38) and 19 (13–22) weeks, respectively. Men and women in the study group had significantly higher levels of psychological distress than men and women in the comparison group on all psychometric endpoints. The lowest level of distress in the study group was associated with the least severe anomalies with no diagnostic or prognostic ambiguity (p < 0.033). Men had lower scores than women on all psychometric outcome variables. The correlation in distress scores between men and women was high in the fetal anomaly group (p < 0.001), but non-significant in the comparison group.ConclusionSeverity of the anomaly including ambiguity significantly influenced paternal response. Men reported lower scores on all psychometric outcomes than women.This knowledge may facilitate support for both expectant parents to reduce strain within the family after detection of a fetal anomaly.

Do females influence paternal responsiveness in male prairie voles Microtus ochrogaster by increasing the salience of infant odors?

Abstract Male prairie voles become more responsive to infants following cohabitation with a female. Exposure to female sensory cues prior to offspring birth may influence male paternal tendencies by modifying his response to infant odors in particular or to odors in general. To test these hypotheses, males were housed with an unfamiliar female or a same-sex sibling for 13 days then examined for their response towards either live infants or infant-like inanimate objects covered with one of three odors: water, infant, sub-adult. We recorded the number of males that retrieved and manipulated the infants or odor-covered objects and measured the frequency and duration of time males spent attending to them or engaged in other non-social activities. Female-Cohabited males approached the container holding infant-odor covered objects faster than Male-Cohabited males, but showed no differences in time spent manipulating those objects. Males in both groups spent more time manipulating live infants than odor-covered objects. However, Female-Cohabited subjects were more likely to manipulate odor-covered objects as well as live infants than Male-Cohabited subjects. Additionally, the frequency of self-grooming in Female-Cohabited males was higher for water-covered objects compared to Male-Cohabited males. In presence of water and live infants, Female-Cohabited males groomed themselves with greater frequency than in presence of infant odor or sub-adult odor. The data suggest that female cues increase the male’s sensitivity to infant odors and enhance the salience of non-social odors.

Parent–Adolescent Discrepancies in Perceived Parenting Characteristics and Adolescent Developmental Outcomes in Poor Chinese Families

We examined the relationships between parent–adolescent discrepancies in perceived parenting characteristics (indexed by parental responsiveness, parental demandingness, and parental control) and adolescent developmental outcomes (indexed by achievement motivation and psychological competence) in poor families in Hong Kong. A sample of 275 intact families having at least one child aged 11–16 experiencing economic disadvantage were invited to participate in the study. Fathers and mothers completed the Parenting Style Scale and Chinese Parental Control Scale, and adolescents completed the Social-Oriented Achievement Motivation Scale and Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale in addition to paternal and maternal Parenting Style Scale and Chinese Parental Control Scale. Results indicated that parents and adolescents had different perceptions of parental responsiveness, parental demandingness, and paternal control, with adolescents generally perceived lower levels of parenting behaviors than did their parents. While father–adolescent discrepancy in perceived paternal responsiveness and mother–adolescent discrepancy in perceived maternal control negatively predicted adolescent achievement motivation, mother–adolescent discrepancy in perceptions of maternal responsiveness negatively predicted psychological competence in adolescents experiencing economic disadvantage. The present findings provided support that parent–child discrepancies in perceived parenting characteristics have negative impacts on the developmental outcomes of adolescents experiencing economic disadvantage. The present study addresses parent–child discrepancies in perceived parental behaviors as “legitimate” constructs, and explores their links with adolescent psychosocial development, which sheds light for researchers and clinical practitioners in helping the Chinese families experiencing economic disadvantage.

Post-partum variation in the expression of paternal care is unrelated to urinary steroid metabolites in marmoset fathers

The organization and activation of maternal care are known to be highly regulated by hormones and there is growing evidence that expression of paternal care is also related to endocrine substrates. We examined the relationship between paternal behavior and steroid hormones in marmoset fathers (Callithrix geoffroyi) and evaluated whether hormone–paternal behavior relationships were altered by previous offspring-care experience in males. Based on previous findings, we predicted that testosterone, estradiol, and cortisol would decrease following the birth of offspring and would be lowest during the period of maximal infant carrying. Furthermore, we predicted that post-partum changes in carrying effort and hormone levels would be influenced by the level of offspring-care experience. Carrying effort and other paternal care behaviors underwent temporal changes over the post-partum period, but these patterns were not related to variation in hormone concentrations over the same period. There was a limited effect of offspring-care experience on hormone concentrations, but experience was found to play a role in the expression of paternal care, with experienced fathers engaging in significantly more infant allogrooming than inexperienced fathers. Furthermore, inexperienced fathers increased the frequency of food sharing in response to infant begging across the post-partum period, while experienced fathers displayed consistently low levels. We posit that a combination of experiential factors and an increased role for alloparents in offspring-care led to these changes. However, it appears that hormonal changes may not influence paternal responsiveness in white-faced marmoset fathers and that hormone–paternal behavior relationships are not critically dependent on a male's previous offspring-care experience.

Modeling paternal attentiveness: Distressed pups evoke differential neurobiological and behavioral responses in paternal and nonpaternal mice

With the exception of parturition and lactation, male California deer mice (Peromyscus californicus) exhibit the same parental responses toward offspring as conspecific females. A closely related species, Peromyscus maniculatus, however, rarely exhibits paternal responses. In the current study, a comparative species approach was used to assess paternal responses in both Peromyscus species with varying levels of paternal experience (biological fathers, pup-exposed virgins, and pup-naïve virgins). Of special interest was the persistence of the males to direct their attention toward a distressed pup housed in a small enclosure (i.e., a barrier existed between males and pups). In addition to pup-directed responses, non-pup-directed responses such as grooming, resting and jumping were recorded. Subsequently, all animals’ brains were assessed for fos-immunoreactivity (ir) in several areas previously associated with the paternal brain circuit. Overall, P. californicus exhibited more pup-directed responses as well as less fos-ir in brain areas involved in emotional integration and processing such as the insula and anterior cingulate. In addition to increased activation of emotional regulatory areas, P. maniculatus males, observed to direct their behavior away from the pup, exhibited higher fos-ir in the nucleus accumbens (involved in goal acquisition), perhaps due to a heightened motivation to avoid the pups. Interestingly, experience with pups altered the lateral septum and amygdala activation of P. maniculatus to levels similar to P. californicus biological fathers. Finally, fos-ir was increased in the medial preoptic area, involved in the maintenance of maternal behavior, in the biological fathers of both species. Thus, although biological predispositions toward pup-directed behaviors were observed in P. californicus males, evidence of a few shifts toward the paternal neural activation profile was apparent in P. maniculatus males. Specifically, modifications in fear responses and social processing may represent the cornerstones of the gradual shift from social tentativeness to social attentiveness in the presence of pups.

The role of androgenic steroids in shaping social phenotypes across the lifespan in male marmosets (Callithrix spp.).

Steroid hormones, particularly androgens and their metabolic derivatives, play a prominent role in shaping morphological, behavioral, and social phenotypes in many organisms, including primates. This paper reviews the endocrine correlates of development in male marmoset monkeys of the genus Callithrix (C. kuhlii and C. geoffroyi). A lifespan developmental perspective is adopted, in which our knowledge of hormone effects and profiles from prenatal periods through old age is described. Prenatal steroid hormones appear to play a prominent role in shaping behavioral and morphological phenotypes both the prepartum and in the early postpartum periods of life, with exposure to high gestational androgen associated with reduced fetal growth and lower levels of juvenile play. Early postnatal elevations in androgen levels in males are ubiquitous in Callithrix, and play a role in the further differentiation of male genital morphology and behavior. Changes in androgens as males approach puberty are similar to the conventional primate pattern, and unlike in female marmosets, gonadal steroidogenesis appears to be independent of social context. In adults, androgens appear to be an important modulator of paternal responsiveness to infants, since androgens are low at times when males typically engage in maximal levels of care, and fathers that care for offspring extensively appear to have lower androgen levels than fathers that are less involved in offspring care. Finally, aging in male marmosets is associated with reduced androgen levels. This reduction appears to be attributable to deficits in central mechanisms, since experimental induction and inhibition of gonadal steroid synthesis and release appears to be normal in older males. Together, these results suggest a complex picture of lifetime involvement of androgens in shaping marmoset phenotypes.

Paternal responsiveness is associated with, but not mediated by reduced neophobia in male California mice (Peromyscus californicus)

Hormones associated with pregnancy and parturition have been implicated in facilitating the onset of maternal behavior via reductions in neophobia, anxiety, and stress responsiveness. To determine whether the onset of paternal behavior has similar associations in biparental male California mice (Peromyscus californicus), we compared paternal responsiveness, neophobia (novel-object test), and anxiety-like behavior (elevated plus maze, EPM) in isolated virgins (housed alone), paired virgins (housed with another male), expectant fathers (housed with pregnant pairmate), and new fathers (housed with pairmate and pups). Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and Fos immunoreactivity (IR) were quantified in brain tissues following exposure to a predator-odor stressor or under baseline conditions. New fathers showed lower anxiety-like behavior than expectant fathers and isolated virgins in EPM tests. In all housing conditions, stress elevated Fos-IR in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN). Social isolation reduced overall (baseline and stress-induced) Fos- and colocalized Fos/CRH-IR, and increased overall CRH-IR, in the PVN. In the central nucleus of the amygdala, social isolation increased stress-induced CRH-IR and decreased stress-induced activation of CRH neurons. Across all housing conditions, paternally behaving males displayed more anxiety-related behavior than nonpaternal males in the EPM, but showed no differences in CRH- or Fos-IR. Finally, the latency to engage in paternal behavior was positively correlated with the latency to approach a novel object. These results suggest that being a new father does not reduce anxiety, neophobia, or neural stress responsiveness. Low levels of neophobia, however, were associated with, but not necessary for paternal responsiveness.

Individual Variation in Paternal Responses of Virgin Male California Mice (Peromyscus californicus): Behavioral and Physiological Correlates

California mice Peromyscus californicus are a rodent species in which fathers provide extensive paternal care; however, behavioral responses of virgin males toward conspecific neonates vary from paternal behavior to tolerance to infanticide. Indirect evidence suggests that paternal responses might be influenced by social status potentially through increased stress and anxiety in subordinate males. To test this hypothesis, we housed 12 virgin male California mice in same-sex dyads on weaning and assessed their within-dyad subordinate or dominant status using food-competition and urine-marking tests. In addition, behavioral responses to an unrelated pup, expression of vasopressin (AVP) and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN), basal plasma levels of testosterone and corticosterone, and body mass were measured. Food-competition and urine-marking tests did not reveal strong or stable dominance-subordination relationships in male-male dyads. Latency to sniff a newborn pup was correlated negatively with urine marking in the center of a novel environment and positively with expression of AVP mRNA in the PVN. Because these three parameters are all associated with state anxiety in other rodent species, these results suggest that individual differences in paternal responsiveness may be influenced by individual differences in anxiety but not necessarily by social status in virgin male California mice.

Individual and parental factors related to meaning in life among Hungarian minority adolescents from Romania

Understanding how adolescents achieve meaning in life has important implications for their psychological development. A social cognitive model of meaning development was tested by assessing psychological (self-efficacy, self-regulation and social comparison) and parental (parental responsiveness, demandingness, and social support) variables in a sample of 1944 adolescents (aged 15-19 years; 47.8% males) from secondary schools of the Middle Transylvanian Region, Romania. Both psychological and parental factors were significantly related to meaning in life. For both boys and girls, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and maternal responsiveness related positively with meaning in life, and paternal demandingness related inversely to meaning in life. However, social comparison related positively to meaning only among boys, and paternal responsiveness related positively to meaning only among girls. Results point to a possible meaning-supporting role played by social cognitive variables, as well as parental autonomy support. The gender differences observed here suggest that existing theories of meaning development may need to be elaborated to include family of origin and gender.

Using a Comparative Species Approach to Investigate the Neurobiology of Paternal Responses

A goal of behavioral neuroscience is to identify underlying neurobiological factors that regulate specific behaviors. Using animal models to accomplish this goal, many methodological strategies require invasive techniques to manipulate the intensity of the behavior of interest (e.g., lesion methods, pharmacological manipulations, microdialysis techniques, genetically-engineered animal models). The utilization of a comparative species approach allows researchers to take advantage of naturally occurring differences in response strategies existing in closely related species. In our lab, we use two species of the Peromyscus genus that differ in paternal responses. The male California deer mouse (Peromyscus californicus) exhibits the same parental responses as the female whereas its cousin, the common deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) exhibits virtually no nurturing/parental responses in the presence of pups. Of specific interest in this article is an exploration of the neurobiological factors associated with the affiliative social responses exhibited by the paternal California deer mouse. Because the behavioral neuroscience approach is multifaceted, the following key components of the study will be briefly addressed: the identification of appropriate species for this type of research; data collection for behavioral analysis; preparation and sectioning of the brains; basic steps involved in immunocytochemistry for the quantification of vasopressin-immunoreactivity; the use of neuroimaging software to quantify the brain tissue; the use of a microsequencing video analysis to score behavior and, finally, the appropriate statistical analyses to provide the most informed interpretations of the research findings.

Using a Comparative Species Approach to Investigate the Neurobiology of Paternal Responses

A goal of behavioral neuroscience is to identify underlying neurobiological factors that regulate specific behaviors. Using animal models to accomplish this goal, many methodological strategies require invasive techniques to manipulate the intensity of the behavior of interest (e.g., lesion methods, pharmacological manipulations, microdialysis techniques, genetically-engineered animal models). The utilization of a comparative species approach allows researchers to take advantage of naturally occurring differences in response strategies existing in closely related species. In our lab, we use two species of the Peromyscus genus that differ in paternal responses. The male California deer mouse (Peromyscus californicus) exhibits the same parental responses as the female whereas its cousin, the common deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) exhibits virtually no nurturing/parental responses in the presence of pups. Of specific interest in this article is an exploration of the neurobiological factors associated with the affiliative social responses exhibited by the paternal California deer mouse. Because the behavioral neuroscience approach is multifaceted, the following key components of the study will be briefly addressed: the identification of appropriate species for this type of research; data collection for behavioral analysis; preparation and sectioning of the brains; basic steps involved in immunocytochemistry for the quantification of vasopressin-immunoreactivity; the use of neuroimaging software to quantify the brain tissue; the use of a microsequencing video analysis to score behavior and, finally, the appropriate statistical analyses to provide the most informed interpretations of the research findings.

OP37.07: Paternal psychological response shortly after ultrasonographic detection of structural fetal anomaly

OP37.07: Paternal psychological response shortly after ultrasonographic detection of structural fetal anomaly

OP38.01: A novel, simple technique for the diagnosis of micrognathia in the first‐trimester: identification of the receding chin on the retronasal triangle (RNT) view

of the fetal anomaly, and prognostic ambiguity concerning diagnosis or prognosis. The aim of this study is to describe paternal psychological response shortly after detection of fetal anomaly and to compare paternal vs. maternal response within the same couple. Methods: A prospective, observational study was performed at a tertiary referral center for fetal medicine. Pregnant women (n = 155) in second and third trimester and their partner were included within a week following sonographic detection of a fetal structural anomaly. Psychological distress was assessed using the Impact of Event Scale (IES-22), Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the anxiety and depression subscales of the GHQ-28. Social dysfunction and health perception were measured by the corresponding subscales of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). Fetal anomalies were classified according to severity and diagnostic or prognostic ambiguity at the time of assessment. Results: Median GA was 21.5 weeks, range 12–38. There were significant correlations (P < 0.001) between maternal and paternal psychological response on all measurements. Males had significantly lower scores than females on all psychometric endpoints (P < 0.01) performing related-samples Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test. In a two-way ANOVA, GA did not influence the paternal level of psychological distress in any of the psychometric scales. The severity of fetal anomaly influenced the level of IES intrusion, IES arousal, and EPDS depression (P < 0.004). The least severe anomalies with no diagnostic or prognostic ambiguity induced the lowest levels of IES intrusive distress. Conclusions: Males had lower scores on all psychometric scales than females. Severity of anomaly significantly influenced the paternal response, whereas GA at assessment did not.

The effects of social context on the hormonal and behavioral responsiveness of human fathers

We tested first-time fathers with their 22-month old toddlers to determine whether social context variables such as pre-test absence from the child and presence of the mother affected physiological measures associated with paternal responsiveness. Heart rate and blood pressure readings as well as blood samples to determine prolactin, testosterone and cortisol levels were taken before and after the 30-min father–toddler interactions. Fathers were tested on a day when they were away from their child for several hours before testing (‘without-child’ day) and on another day where they remained with their child throughout the day (‘with-child’ day). Most measures decreased over the 30-min test period but relative decreases were context-dependent. Men maintained higher prolactin levels when they were away from their children longer before testing on the ‘without-child’ day. Cortisol levels decreased during both tests and they decreased more on the ‘with-child’ day for men who had spent more time alone with their toddler before the test. Heart-rate and diastolic (but not systolic) blood pressure decreased more on the ‘with-child’ day than on the ‘without-child’ day. Fathers' testosterone levels decreased when their partners were less involved in the interactions. Compared to men with high responsiveness ratings on both days, men whose responsiveness increased after being away from their child on the ‘without-child’ day maintained higher systolic blood pressure and had a greater decrease in testosterone levels. We conclude that context may be more important in determining fathers' physiological responses to child contact than has previously been appreciated, particularly for some individuals.

Characteristic Neurobiological Patterns Differentiate Paternal Responsiveness in Two Peromyscus Species

Rodent paternal models provide unique opportunities to investigate the emergence of affiliative social behavior in mammals. Using biparental and uniparental Peromyscus species (californicus and maniculatus, respectively) we assessed paternal responsiveness by exposing males to biological offspring, unrelated conspecific pups, or familiar brothers following a 24-hour separation. The putative paternal circuit we investigated included brain areas involved in fear/anxiety [cingulate cortex (Cg), medial amygdala (MeA), paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), and lateral septum (LS)], parental motivation [medial preoptic area (MPOA)], learning/behavioral plasticity (hippocampus), olfaction [pyriform cortex (PC)], and social rewards (nucleus accumbens). Paternal experience in californicus males reduced fos immunoreactivity (ir) in several fear/anxiety areas; additionally, all californicus groups exhibited decreased fos-ir in the PC. Enhanced arginine vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OT)-ir cell bodies and fibers, as well as increased neuronal restructuring in the hippocampus, were also observed in californicus mice. Multidimensional scaling analyses revealed distinct brain activation profiles differentiating californicus biological fathers, pup-exposed virgins, and pup-naïve virgins. Specifically, associations among MPOA fos, CA1 fos, dentate gyrus GFAP, CA2 nestin-, and PVN OT-ir characterized biological fathers; LS fos-, Cg fos-, and AVP-ir characterized pup-exposed virgins, and PC-, PVN-, and MeA fos-ir characterized pup-naïve virgins. Thus, whereas fear/anxiety areas characterized pup-naïve males, neurobiological factors involved in more diverse functions such as learning, motivation, and nurturing responses characterized fatherhood in biparental californicus mice. Less distinct paternal-dependent activation patterns were observed in uniparental maniculatus mice. These data suggest that dual neurobiological circuits, leading to the inhibition of social-dependent anxiety as well as the activation of affiliative responses, characterize the transition from nonpaternal to paternal status in californicus mice.

Links between paternal depressive symptoms, parental sensitivity and children's responsiveness: A study on Israeli children with feeding disorders

This study examined mechanisms by which paternal depressive symptoms are related to children's responsiveness to their fathers and mothers among children with feeding disorders (FD). Participants included 28 children diagnosed with FD and their parents and 27 children and parents in non-FD families. Measures included paternal reports of depressive symptoms and videotaping of parents' sensitivity and children's responsiveness, as exhibited during play and feeding interactions. Analyses revealed that in both groups, paternal sensitivity mediated the link between paternal depressive symptoms and children's responsiveness to their fathers. However, crossover effects of paternal depressive symptoms on the mother-child relationship were evident only among the FD group. Specifically, paternal depressive symptoms were linked to lower maternal sensitivity, which in turn, was linked to children's reduced responsiveness to their mothers. The paper discusses the role of paternal depressive symptoms in the parent-chil...

Unpacking the association: Individual differences in the relation of prenatal exposure to cigarettes and disruptive behavior phenotypes

Prenatal exposure to cigarettes has been robustly associated with disruptive behavior in diverse samples and across developmental periods. In this paper we aim to elucidate exposure related behavioral phenotypes and developmental pathways by testing: (a) differential associations of exposure and four disruptive behavior dimensional phenotypes: Aggression, Noncompliance, Temper Loss and Low Concern for Others; and (b) moderation of these pathways including sex differences and moderation by parental responsive engagement. Participants were 211 teens and their parents from the East Boston Family Study (EBFS), an adolescent follow-up of a pregnancy cohort over-sampled for exposure. A best estimate serum cotinine corrected score was used to characterize exposure. In multivariate models controlling for parental antisocial behavior, family adversity and secondhand exposure, exposure uniquely predicted Aggression and Noncompliance. Paternal responsiveness moderated exposure effects on disruptive behavior. There were no sex differences in these patterns. Phenotypic findings suggest the possibility of specific neural mechanisms. In conjunction with prior research, protective effects of parental responsiveness occurring as late as adolescence point to the potential benefit of parenting-based prevention efforts to reduce risk to exposed offspring.

Caregiver functioning following early childhood TBI: Do moms and dads respond differently?

Research suggests that pediatric TBI results in injury-related stress and burden and psychological distress for parents. However, existing studies have focused almost exclusively on mothers, so that we know relatively little about the impact of childhood TBI on fathers. The aims were to prospectively examine differences in maternal and paternal response to early childhood TBI over time relative to a comparison cohort of mothers and fathers of children with orthopedic injuries (OI). The concurrent cohort/prospective research design involved repeated assessments of children aged 3-6 years with TBI or OI requiring hospitalization and their families. Shortly after injury and at 6, 12, and 18 months post injury, parents of 48 children with TBI (11 severe and 37 moderate) and 89 with OI completed standardized assessments of injury-related stress and burden, parental distress, and coping strategies. Mixed models analyses and Generalized Estimating Equations examined differences in maternal versus paternal burden, distress, and coping over time. The analyses included interactions of parent sex with group (severe TBI, moderate TBI, OI) and time since injury, to examine the moderating effects of injury severity on parental response to injury over time. Fathers were more likely than mothers to use denial to cope following moderate and severe TBI, but not OI. Conversely, mothers were more likely to prefer acceptance and emotion-focused strategies than fathers regardless of the type of injury. The use of active coping strategies varied as a function of injury type, parent sex, and time since injury. Fathers reported greater injury-related stress and distress than mothers over time, with pronounced differences in the severe TBI and OI groups. Mothers and fathers appear to respond differently following TBI. The different types of responses may serve to exacerbate emerging family dysfunction.

The First Man in Her Life: Father Emotional Responsiveness During Adolescence and College Women's Sexual Refusal Behaviors

Few empirical studies have examined how fathers influence daughters’ sexual interactions with male peers. We hypothesized that paternal emotional responsiveness would empower daughters to refuse unwanted sex. Female undergraduates (N = 144) and their fathers completed measures of paternal responsiveness during adolescence; daughters also reported their global self-worth, acceptance of male partner dominance, and sexual refusal behaviors. As expected, paternal responsiveness promoted daughters’ refusals of unwanted sex. Paternal responsiveness predicted daughters’ self-worth, partially explaining daughters’ increased sexual assertiveness. Perceived paternal responsiveness also negatively predicted daughters’ acceptance of male dominance. These results suggest that positive paternal relationships promote daughters’ sexual agency.

Perceptions of School and Family Climates and Experiences of Relational Aggression

The role of family and school-level variables on relational aggression and relational victimization was investigated among 158 fourth- and fifth-grade children. Family cohesion, maternal and paternal responsiveness, and school climate were hypothesized to be significant predictors of relational aggression and relational victimization. The results indicated that both characteristics of the family and school were related to experiences of relational aggression. However, specific characteristics of the family environment were more important to the prediction of relational aggression and relational victimization. Level of paternal responsiveness emerged as an important variable with regard to relational aggression, particularly for among females and for relational victimization among males.