Paternal Behavior Research Articles

The effects of fathering experience on paternal behaviors and levels of central expression of oxytocin and dopamine-2 type receptors in mandarin voles

Mothers' brains change dramatically in response to the release of hormones related to pregnancy and labor; however, fathers' brains are also sensitive to the experience of paternal care. Thus, fathers with differing fathering experience may exhibit different behavioral responses towards pups. Using socially monogamous mandarin voles (Microtus mandarinus), effects of fathering experience on levels of paternal behavior as well as oxytocin (OT) and dopamine-2 type (D2) receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NaCC) and medial nucleus of the amygdala (MeA) were investigated. The obtained results showed that experienced fathers displayed more active paternal behaviors such as licking, retrieval, and nest building than new fathers; however, new fathers spent more time in inactive huddling than experienced fathers. Western blot analysis showed that new fathers had significantly higher levels of OTR, but lower levels of D2R compared to experienced fathers in the NaCC. Levels of OTR and D2R in the NaCC and MeA of new and experienced fathers changed with the age of pups. OTR levels in the NaCC of both new and experienced fathers significantly decreased in response to increasing age of pups. Levels of D2R in the NaCC of new fathers on postnatal day 7 (PND 7) were significantly higher than on PND1 and PND14, and levels of D2R in the NaCC of experienced fathers increased with the age of pups. OTR levels in the MeA of new fathers decreased with the age of pups. In contrast, OTR levels of experienced fathers significantly increased with the age of pups. The D2R level in the MeA of new fathers did not change significantly, while the D2R levels of experienced fathers increased with the age of pups. These data illustrate that fathering experience could increase the active components of parental care and alter the expression levels of OTR and D2R in a region- and time-dependent way.

Sources of evaluation of parental behaviors as predictors of achievement outcomes

Parents contribute to their children’s academic achievements by supporting their basic psychological needs. Parents’ need supporting behaviors (NSB) were expected to predict positive academic outcomes such as students’ academic performance and persistence intentions. The present study tested the contribution of parental NSB by distinguishing which of the source of evaluation (parent or adolescent) or specific NSB (autonomy support, involvement, structure) was a better predictor of youths’ academic performance and persistence intentions. This prospective study used a sample of 435 mother–adolescent dyads and 246 father–adolescent dyads, who completed two questionnaires a year apart. Results suggested that poor agreement between sources precluded the adoption of a multitrait-multimethod model. Using distinct factors for mothers, fathers, and adolescents to evaluate each NSB, different predictions were found for each outcome. Our results showed stronger contributions for paternal behaviors than for maternal ones, from the perspective of both students and their parents. These findings are examined in light of theories and research on parenting and education.

The direct and indirect effect of attachment insecurity and negative parental behavior on anxiety in clinically anxious children: it's down to dad.

Theoretically, insecure attachment and negative parental behaviors are risk factors for childhood anxiety. However, few empirical studies have examined their relative contribution including differences between mothers and fathers. To date, only one study has examined a mediational model including these factors, albeit in a nonclinical sample. This study ameliorates this limitation by investigating direct and indirect relations between maternal and paternal attachment and behaviors, and clinical anxiety in children (mean age 9.6years). The study recruited 54 families. Anxiety symptoms were measured by the Spielberger State-trait Inventory for Children, attachment relationships by the Security Scale, and parental behaviors using the Rearing Behavior Questionnaire. Neither insecure attachment relationship with mother nor maternal negative behavior was a significant predictor of anxiety in children. However, insecure attachment to father accounted for a significant proportion of variance in anxiety, and also fully mediated the relationship between paternal rejection and anxiety. Our findings highlight the importance of assessing the relative contribution of risk factors and the importance of including fathers when investigating the development and maintenance of childhood anxiety.

Psychometric Properties of the Parental Bonding Instrument: Data from a Chinese Adolescent Sample in Hong Kong

Although researchers widely use the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) to measure parenting behaviour in terms of parental care and overprotection, its development using Western samples has cast doubt on its applicability among non-Western ones. In response, we examined psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the PBI by using survey data collected from a sample of 1997 Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong, whose mean age was 14.6 years and 50.3% of whom were girls. Our results supported a 4-factor structure representing caring, indifferent, overprotective, and autonomous parenting behaviours that we confirmed to be applicable to paternal and maternal parenting behaviours. Results of Cronbach’s alpha tests indicated that the measure is of good reliability, and correlations between the PBI and character strengths confirmed the scale’s good concurrent validity. Parental care and autonomy positively correlated with bravery, honesty, perseverance, kindness, love, self-regulation, social intelligence, and fairness, whereas indifference and overprotection negatively correlated with those eight character strengths. Parenting differences emerged regarding parental and children’s gender. In all, the Chinese version of the PBI proved to be a psychometrically robust measure for capturing adolescents’ perceptions of parenting behaviours in Hong Kong, which we discuss in terms of implications for future research.

Fathers’ sensitive guidance moderates the association between coparenting and behavioral regulation in preschoolers

The purpose of this study was to determine the links between paternal sensitive guidance, coparenting, and child behavioral regulation. It also aimed to assess whether paternal sensitive behaviors moderate the putative relationship between cooperative coparenting and child regulatory abilities. The sample comprised 70 preschoolers and their fathers. Behavioral regulation was assessed using the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task. For the assessment of paternal sensitive guidance, dyads were videotaped during a picture-book reading task. Fathers reported coparenting cooperation. Results revealed that coparenting predicted behavioral regulation, even after accounting for verbal ability and parental education. No significant links emerged between fathers’ sensitive guidance and regulatory skills. However, the interaction of coparenting and paternal sensitive behaviors predicted behavioral regulation: a lower score on cooperative coparenting was linked to more regulatory difficulties, when coupled with lower levels of paternal sensitive guidance. Intervention programs, designed to promote child self-regulation, should be focused on strategies aimed to improve both the cooperation between parents and the quality of individual parenting. Efforts should be made to include fathers.

A Systematic Review of the Effective Factors in Father’s Adaptation

Background: A father’s adaptation will facilitate the transition into fatherhood and strengthen the bonding and attachment between the father and his children. Objectives: The aim of this review article determined the effective factors in the father’s adaptation. Methods: The present study has been developed based on the PRISMA checklist. We conducted this review using Persian databases (Magiran, Iran Medex, Iran Doc, SID and Google Scholar) for Persian relevant literature and English databases (ISI Web of Science, MEDLINE, CINAHL, HMIC, Child Data, NCJRS, HSRProj, IBSS) for English relevant literature. To search in each electronic database, the following terms were used: “Father”, “Paternal Behaviors”, “Behavior”, “Paternal”, “Father-Child Relationship”, “Father-Child Relation”, “Adaptation”, “Care”, and “Child”. Two reviewers assessed the quality of the included studies. Inclusion criteria included: focused on fatherhood and father’s adaptation, they were scientific papers with the quantitative or qualitative method, providing appropriate and suitable information about effective factors on the father’s adaptation of healthy children, and published in a scientific and high-quality scholarly journal. All relevant literature that was published between August 1990 and September 2017 were included. Results: The 21 studies were included in the current systematic review from an initial search of 87 records. The results can be divided into 3 general groups of effective factors in the father’s adaptation, including: paternal factors, child factors, and health care service factors. Conclusion: Findings of this study showed a wide range of effective factors such as age, occupation, educational level, satisfaction with marriage, antenatal education classes, care providers support, and child gender in father’s adaptation. It is recommended that future researches should be focused toward need-based interventions to improve father’s adaptation.

An increase in estradiol facilitates the onset of paternal behavior in the dwarf hamster (Phodopus campbelli)

In the dwarf hamster (Phodopus campbelli), activational effects of testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2) in the regulation of paternal behavior have been repeatedly rejected because peripheral concentrations of E2 do not change across the reproductive cycle of males. Further, castration no affected paternal behavior despite that both T and E2 concentrations decreased significantly. However, the role of these hormones has not been evaluated in models of castration and hormonal replacement in virgin males. Here, we analysed the effects of E2 and T in paternal behavior in virgin male dwarf hamster (Phodopus campbelli). Thirty paternal (PAT) males were bilaterally castrated; of them, 10 were implanted with T, 10 with E2 and 10 males received no treatment. Other 10 PAT males underwent sham-castration. Seventeen aggressive (AGG) males were also bilaterally castrated; of these, 10 AGG received E2 replacement, 7 were not treated. Other 7 AGG males were submitted to sham-castration. Following treatments, paternal behavior tests were conducted again. T and E2 levels in plasma were quantified by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The results showed that the treatments did not affect the paternal behavior of males that were initially paternal. Neither castration nor sham-castration surgery affected the behavior of AGG males. However, when these males were treated with E2 and the concentrations of this hormone increase significantly they became paternal. Our data suggest that an increase in E2 levels shifted infanticidal behavior to paternal behavior in dwarf hamster.

The effects of paternal disengagement on women’s perceptions of male mating intent.

Previous research demonstrates reliable associations between low paternal investment and daughters' precocious and risky sexual behavior. However, little is known about the psychological changes that occur in response to paternal disengagement that encourage these patterns. Here, we aim to redress this empirical gap by testing the effects of paternal disengagement on women's perceptions of male mating intent. In 4 experiments, women who described their fathers' absence (vs. a comparison state) perceived greater: mating intent in the described actions of a hypothetical dating partner (Study 1), sexual arousal in male target faces (Studies 2 and 3), and mating interest from a male confederate (Study 4). In a mixed-methods study (Study 5), women with greater developmental exposure to harsh-deviant paternal behavior perceived greater sexual intent in men's actions than women with lesser exposure. Moreover, these perceptual differences predicted unrestricted sociosexuality among women in this sample. An internal meta-analysis (N = 408) across studies provided support for a relationship between paternal disengagement and women's perceptions of male sexual intent. Together, this research suggests that low paternal investment (including primed paternal disengagement and harsh-deviant fathering) causes changes in daughters' perceptions of men that may influence their subsequent mating behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record

Effects of social defeat on paternal behavior and pair bonding behavior in male California mice (Peromyscus californicus)

Male parental care is an important social behavior for several mammalian species. Psychosocial stress is usually found to inhibit maternal behavior, but effects on paternal behavior have been less consistent. We tested the effects of social defeat stress on pair bond formation and paternal behavior in the monogamous California mouse (Peromyscus californicus). Social defeat reduced time spent in a chamber with a stranger female during a partner preference test conducted 24h after pairing, but increased latency to the first litter. In 10min partner preference tests conducted after the birth of pups, both control and stressed males exhibited selective aggression towards stranger females. Unlike prairie voles, side by side contact was not observed in either partner preference test. Stressed male California mice engaged in more paternal behavior than controls and had reduced anxiety-like responses in the open-field test. Defeat stress enhanced prodynorphin and KOR expression in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) but not PVN. Increased KOR signaling has been linked to increased selective aggression in prairie voles. Together the results show that defeat stress enhances behaviors related to parental care and pair bonding in male California mice.

Depression and playfulness in fathers and young infants: A matched design comparison study

BackgroundDepression in fathers in the postnatal period is associated with an increased risk of some adverse child developmental outcomes. One possible mechanism for the familial transmission of risk is through the negative effects of depression on parenting and the parent-child relationship. So far, evidence indicates that depressed fathers tend to be more withdrawn in their early interactions. However, the interaction dimensions studied to date may not be able to detect and accurately classify unique features of father-infant play – including physically stimulating and highly rousing episodes of play. Hence, in this matched design comparison study, we set out to examine, for the first time, links between diagnosed paternal depression in the postnatal period and playfulness in father-infant interactions. MethodsFathers and their infants were assessed when the infants were 3 months old. Paternal depression was diagnosed using a structured psychiatric interview. Currently depressed (n = 19) and non-depressed (n = 19) fathers were individually matched on age and education. Fathers were filmed playing with their children. Four dimensions were coded for paternal playfulness during free-play: physicality, playful excitation, tactile stimulation and active engagement. ResultsDepressed fathers, compared to non-depressed fathers, engaged in fewer episodes of playful excitation (mean scores: 0.71 vs.2.53, p = 0.005), less gentle touch (mean time: 38.57 vs. 53.37, p = 0.015) and less active engagement (mean scores: 2.29 vs 3.24, p = 0.044). When controlling for infant fretfulness, the findings remained largely unchanged. LimitationsThe sample size was small and the sample was limited to mostly white, well-educated fathers. ConclusionsPlayful paternal behaviours as early as 3 months differ between fathers with and without depression. These changes may help in understanding children’s risk in relation to paternal psychopathology and could be a target for future family interventions.

Neural Regulation of Paternal Behavior in Mammals: Sensory, Neuroendocrine, and Experiential Influences on the Paternal Brain.

Across the animal kingdom, parents in many species devote extraordinary effort toward caring for offspring, often risking their lives and exhausting limited resources. Understanding how the brain orchestrates parental care, biasing effort over the many competing demands, is an important topic in social neuroscience. In mammals, maternal care is necessary for offspring survival and is largely mediated by changes in hormones and neuropeptides that fluctuate massively during pregnancy, parturition, and lactation (e.g., progesterone, estradiol, oxytocin, and prolactin). In the relatively small number of mammalian species in which parental care by fathers enhances offspring survival and development, males also undergo endocrine changes concurrent with birth of their offspring, but on a smaller scale than females. Thus, fathers additionally rely on sensory signals from their mates, environment, and/or offspring to orchestrate paternal behavior. Males can engage in a variety of infant-directed behaviors that range from infanticide to avoidance to care; in many species, males can display all three behaviors in their lifetime. The neural plasticity that underlies such stark changes in behavior is not well understood. In this chapter we summarize current data on the neural circuitry that has been proposed to underlie paternal care in mammals, as well as sensory, neuroendocrine, and experiential influences on paternal behavior and on the underlying circuitry. We highlight some of the gaps in our current knowledge of this system and propose future directions that will enable the development of a more comprehensive understanding of the proximate control of parenting by fathers.

Lack of multiple paternity in the oceanodromous tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier).

Multiple paternity has been documented as a reproductive strategy in both viviparous and ovoviviparous elasmobranchs, leading to the assumption that multiple mating may be ubiquitous in these fishes. However, with the majority of studies conducted on coastal and nearshore elasmobranchs that often form mating aggregations, parallel studies on pelagic, semi-solitary species are lacking. The tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) is a large pelagic shark that has an aplacental viviparous reproductive mode which is unique among the carcharhinids. A total of 112 pups from four pregnant sharks were genotyped at nine microsatellite loci to assess the possibility of multiple paternity or polyandrous behaviour by female tiger sharks. Only a single pup provided evidence of possible multiple paternity, but with only seven of the nine loci amplifying for this individual, results were inconclusive. In summary, it appears that the tiger sharks sampled in this study were genetically monogamous. These findings may have implications for the genetic diversity and future sustainability of this population.

Gender, Socioeconomic Status, and Diet Behaviors within Brazilian Families.

Existing literature documents the key role that parents play in transmitting diet behaviors to their children; however, less is known about differences by parent and child gender within families, especially with attention to household socioeconomic status (SES). We use nationally representative household data from Brazil and ask how parent-child associations of diet behavior differ by gender within lower- and higher-SES households. Results indicate that both maternal and paternal diet behaviors are associated with sons' and daughters' diet behaviors, but the strength of these associations differs depending on the gender of both the parent and the child. Moreover, gender differences in parent-child diet resemblance exist primarily in lower-, but not in higher-SES households. These findings are important for understanding health processes that occur within families and lead to disparities across generations, especially in a middle-income country undergoing sharp economic and nutritional changes.

Influence of family structure and gender on oral health behavioral characteristics in siblings, a narrative review

Aim: To comprehensively address the concerns regarding the influence of family structure and gender on sibling oral health behavioral characteristics. Background: The maintenance of one’s oral health is influenced by the behavioral characteristics and structure of a family, parental attitudes, presence or absence of siblings, paternal and maternal behavior and the gender of the child. The intricate, subtle and sensitive directives a child’s mind perceives and receives on a daily basis within the home environment plays a vital role in determining the mind set of a child in relation to oral health. Clinical significance: Psychology, Psychiatry, Sociology, Developmental Physiology, Sibling behavior patterns and background family factors are key related fields in the formative years which guide us for a comprehensive understanding. Comprehending the intricately networked branches of behavioral sciences and sibling behavior helps us to refine our response to patients, for improved oral health counsel and advise. Conclusion: Adoption of the best practices for improving oral health related interaction at home and for bringing about a sensitive and constructive approach in the mindset of siblings contribute to improved health outcomes.

Paternal Anxiety in Relation to Toddler Anxiety: The Mediating Role of Maternal Behavior.

Despite robust investigations examining the impact of maternal anxiety and parenting behaviors and child anxiety risk, less is understood about the impact of paternal anxiety and parenting behaviors on child anxiety risk, particularly within the broader family context. An Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) was used to examine whether paternal anxiety longitudinally predicted child anxiety risk indirectly through maternal and paternal parenting behaviors, while controlling for maternal anxiety. Both fathers and mothers of 12- to 30-month-olds (n = 94) provided self-report of their anxiety and parenting behaviors. Child inhibited temperament (i.e., anxiety risk) was coded. Two APIMs separately considering encouragement of independence and overprotection were examined. These models revealed no direct relation between parent and child anxiety while controlling for parenting behaviors. Models did suggest that paternal anxiety is indirectly linked with future child anxiety through lower maternal encouragement of independence, but not through maternal overprotection or paternal parenting behaviors.

Reciprocity Between Parental Psychopathology and Oppositional Symptoms From Preschool to Middle Childhood.

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a common disorder in preschool children. Evidence indicates that maternal and paternal psychopathology, particularly aggressive behavior and anxious and depressed symptoms, contributes to the development of this disorder. The latest research also suggests that ODD symptoms may exacerbate the mental health problems of parents. Our aim was to establish the existence of a reciprocal association between paternal and maternal psychopathology (aggression, depression, and anxiety) and child ODD at ages 3 and 8, using a longitudinal design in a community sample of preschoolers. The sample included 331 children evaluated at ages 3 and 8 through questionnaires and a semistructured diagnostic interview with parents. Parents also informed about their own psychopathology. At 3 years of age, higher levels of ODD symptoms in girls were concurrently associated with maternal anxious and depressed symptoms and paternal aggressive behavior, and higher levels of ODD symptoms in boys were concurrently associated with maternal aggressive behavior. Longitudinally, for boys, higher levels of maternal anxious and depressed symptoms at child age 3 predicted increases in ODD symptoms from 3 to 8 years of age. In addition, higher levels of ODD symptoms in boys aged 3-8 years predicted increases in fathers' anxious and depressive symptoms. Children with ODD should be evaluated and treated promptly, but efforts should be extended to their parents. Mothers' and fathers' mental health must be explored because the psychopathologies of children and parents reciprocally affect each other.

Testosterone induces paternal behavior in sexually inexperienced males of Neotomodon alstoni (Rodentia: Muridae)

The inhibition of infanticide can be considered a prerequisite for the onset of paternal behavior. Thus, hormones such as testosterone (T) would be expected to mediate the inhibition of aggression toward pups and the onset of paternal care. However, the effect of T in onset of this behavior seems to depend of sexual experience. The aim of this study was to determine whether T induces paternal behavior in sexually inexperienced males of the Mexican volcano mouse (Neotomodon alstoni). For this, 33 non-paternal males were selected based on paternal behavior tests. These non-paternal mice were organized in three groups: 10 males were castrated, 10 subjected to sham procedure, and 13 underwent castration and T replacement. After of these treatments, the males were again evaluated by a second paternal behavior test, and blood samples were obtained to measure plasma T levels by radioimmunoassay. Castrated males with T replacement changed their behavior; 46.2 % of these males displayed paternal behavior despite 92.3 % of these males having previously displayed aggressive behavior in the selection test. An increase in T facilitates the onset of paternal behavior in sexually inexperienced males of Mexican volcano mouse, as occurs in sexual experience males. These results support the hypothesis that an increase in T levels would be involved in the neuroendocrine mechanisms that suppress infanticide and promote the onset of parental behavior in Mexican volcano mice males. Future studies in this mouse will investigate whether T regulates the onset of paternal behavior via conversion to estradiol or whether both T metabolites are involved in its onset.

Effects of pair bonding on parental behavior and dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens in male prairie voles.

Male parental care is a vital behavior for the development as well as the physical and mental well-being of the young. However, little is known about the neurochemical regulation of male parental behavior, mainly due to the lack of appropriate animal models. In this study, we used the socially monogamous male prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) to investigate the effect of pair-bonding experience on paternal behavior and dopamine (DA) signaling in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) in the brain. We compared sexually naïve males with males that were pair bonded with a female for two weeks. Our data showed that pair-bonded males displayed enhanced paternal behavior, particularly in pup licking/grooming, associated with increased DA type-1 receptor (D1R) protein expression in the NAcc, compared to sexually naïve males. Site-specific brain microdialysis revealed a significant, but transient, increase in DA release in the NAcc associated with pup exposure in both groups of the males. Further, pharmacological blockade of D1R in the NAcc decreased pup licking/grooming in the pair-bonded males. Together, our data demonstrate that pair-bonding experience with a female facilitated male parental behavior via NAcc D1R mediation in male prairie voles.

Sperm competition games when males invest in paternal care.

Sperm competition games investigate how males partition limited resources between pre- and post-copulatory competition. Although extensive research has explored how various aspects of mating systems affect this allocation, male allocation between mating, fertilization and parental effort has not previously been considered. Yet, paternal care can be energetically expensive and males are generally predicted to adjust their parental effort in response to expected paternity. Here, we incorporate parental effort into sperm competition games, particularly exploring how the relationship between paternal care and offspring survival affects sperm competition and the relationship between paternity and paternal care. Our results support existing expectations that (i) fertilization effort should increase with female promiscuity and (ii) paternal care should increase with expected paternity. However, our analyses also reveal that the cost of male care can drive the strength of these patterns. When paternal behaviour is energetically costly, increased allocation to parental effort constrains allocation to fertilization effort. As paternal care becomes less costly, the association between paternity and paternal care weakens and may even be absent. By explicitly considering variation in sperm competition and the cost of male care, our model provides an integrative framework for predicting the interaction between paternal care and patterns of paternity.

Effects of paternal deprivation on cocaine-induced behavioral response and hypothalamic oxytocin immunoreactivity and serum oxytocin level in female mandarin voles

Early paternal behavior plays a critical role in behavioral development in monogamous species. The vast majority of laboratory studies investigating the influence of parental behavior on cocaine vulnerability focus on the effects of early maternal separation. However, comparable studies on whether early paternal deprivation influences cocaine-induced behavioral response are substantially lacking. Mandarin vole (Microtus mandarinus) is a monogamous rodent with high levels of paternal care. After mandarin vole pups were subjected to early paternal deprivation, acute cocaine- induced locomotion, anxiety- like behavior and social behavior were examined in 45day old female pups, while hypothalamic oxytocin immunoreactivity and serum oxytocin level were also assessed. We found that cocaine increased locomotion and decreased social investigation, contact behavior and serum oxytocin level regardless of paternal care. Cocaine increased anxiety levels and decreased oxytocin immunoreactive neurons of the paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei in the bi-parental care group, whilst there were no specific effects in the paternal deprivation group. These results indicate that paternal deprivation results in different behavioral response to acute cocaine exposure in adolescents, which may be in part associated with the alterations in oxytocin immunoreactivity and peripheral OT level.