Passive Harm Research Articles

Links between ethnic discrimination, mental health, protective factors, and hair cortisol concentrations in asylum seekers living in Germany

ABSTRACT Objective: Asylum seekers often experience ethnic discrimination on the flight or in the host country, which may be associated with chronic stress and impaired mental health. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, a known physiological correlate of chronic stress, can be assessed using hair cortisol concentrations (HCC). The present study aimed to investigate how different forms of perceived ethnic discrimination are associated with mental health outcomes, HCC, and protective factors in asylum seekers living in Germany. Methods: Somatic symptoms (PHQ-15), symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PDS), depressive symptoms (PHQ-9), different forms of ethnic discrimination (active harm, passive harm, institutional discrimination), and protective factors (in-group identification, social support) were assessed cross-sectionally in 144 asylum seekers (average age 32 years, average duration of stay in Germany nine months; 67% men). HCC were obtained from 68 participants. Multiple regression analyses were conducted and social support and in-group identification were tested as potential moderators. Results: Active ethnic discrimination was positively associated with all assessed mental health outcomes, and all forms of ethnic discrimination positively correlated with depressive symptoms. Ethnic discrimination was not associated with HCC. When controlling for other possible influences (e.g. age, gender, traumatic events), passive harm was negatively associated with depressive symptoms (β = −0.17, p = .033) and active harm was positively associated (β = 0.28, p = .022) with somatic symptoms. After the inclusion of the protective factors, the associations were no longer significant. Lower social support was associated with higher depressive symptoms (β = −0.35, p < .001), posttraumatic stress (β = −0.77, p < .001), and somatic symptoms (β = −0.32, p < .001), but did not moderate the associations between ethnic discrimination and the mental health outcomes. Conclusions: Perceived ethnic discrimination may negatively influence asylum seekers’ mental health but does not seem to be associated with HCC. Social support was associated with psychological symptom severity, but did not buffer the effects of ethnic discrimination on mental health.

Disabled and Romani passengers face similar levels of discrimination but different levels of open hostility in the sharing economy

This multimethod project investigates discrimination against members of two populous minority groups in the European Union: the Roma (numbering 6 million) and the disabled (numbering 100 million) on a leading Hungarian carpooling platform. In a field experiment, 1005 ride requests were sent to drivers, with passenger group membership (control, disabled, Roma) manipulated between participants. Widespread discrimination against both groups was apparent in significantly lower approval rates for disabled (56%) and Roma passengers (52%) relative to control (70%). Mechanisms driving anti-disabled and anti-Roma discrimination were probed using an experimental manipulation, natural language processing analysis of driver–passenger interactions, and an online survey (N = 398). Individuating information in the form of reviews did not mitigate unequal treatment, thus providing evidence against statistical (stereotype-based) discrimination. Militating against taste-based (attitudinal) discrimination, respondents reported negative attitudes toward Roma passengers but positive attitudes toward disabled passengers. Moreover, despite equivalent approval rates, disabled passengers were more likely to receive a response from drivers and received more polite responses than Roma passengers did. Overall, the observed patterns are most readily explained by intergroup emotions: Contempt toward Roma passengers likely engenders both passive and active harm, whereas pity toward disabled passengers likely engenders passive harm and active facilitation.

Immigrants’ intragroup moral exclusion predicts ingroup-directed behavioral intentions: The mediating role of disidentification

Previous research documents the relationship between negative treatments of outgroup members and moral exclusion. In this study, we expect negative treatments of the ingroup members to be also related to a moral exclusionary mechanism. Next, we hypothesize that the relationship between intragroup moral exclusion and behavioral intentions (both positive and negative ones) targeting the ingroup members, to be mediated by immigrants’ disidentification with their ethnic identity. Using two samples of Iranians (n = 385) and Tunisians (n = 124) living in Italy, we tested the two hypotheses. Results provided evidence that moral exclusion is negatively associated with positive behavioral intentions (active facilitation) and positively associated with the negative behavioral intentions (passive facilitation and passive harm). Results also suggest that this relationship is mediated by disidentification with immigrants’ own ethnic group.

Perceptions of Organizational Tightness–Looseness Moderate Associations Between Perceived Unfair Discrimination and Employees’ Job Attitudes

Fusing social psychological theory on the BIAS map and attributions with cross-cultural theory on organizational tightness–looseness, we examine the interactive effects of active/passive facilitation/harm by organizational members and perceptions of organizational tightness on employee job attitudes. Study hypotheses were tested using a sample of bank employees located across 26 branches of a large bank in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ( N = 324). Using a norm–behavior alignment perspective, we hypothesized that (supportive) active facilitation behaviors would be more strongly related to employee attitudes in tight versus loose perceived organizational cultures, whereas (negative) passive facilitation, active harm, and passive harm behaviors would be less strongly related to employee attitudes in tight versus loose perceived organizational cultures. Results provided overall support for these expectations. The present findings have implications for the mitigation of the effects of unfair discrimination on employee attitudes in organizational contexts, theorized associations between cultural T–L and unfair discrimination, and the generalizability of cultural T–L theory to developing country contexts that are typified by collectivistic and tight societal cultures.

Measuring the Valence and Intensity of Residents’ Behaviors in Host–Tourist Interactions: Implications for Destination Image and Destination Competitiveness

While studies have documented the valence (e.g., facilitation and harm) of residents’ behaviors toward tourists, research into the intensity (i.e., activeness or passiveness) for such behaviors and the corresponding matrix that could be generated by considering both of these dimensions in the context of tourism remains unexplored. This research offers a more holistic conceptualization of residents’ behaviors by generating a matrix that constitutes the framework of the Behaviours from Intergroup Affect and Stereotype (BIAS) Map. Twelve behaviors were measured and cross-culturally validated via samples from Hong Kong, Singapore, and the United States: Active Facilitation (i.e., socializing, interacting, and starting a conversation with tourists); Passive Facilitation (i.e., tolerating, accepting, and enduring tourists’ behaviors); Active Harm (i.e., mocking, threatening, and being unfriendly to tourists); and Passive Harm (i.e., resisting, refraining, and being reluctant to help tourists). This research provides implications for tourism policy makers to manage host–guest relations that could influence destination image and destination competitiveness.

The effect of imagined contact valence on adolescents’ and early adults’ stereotypes, emotions, and behavioral intentions toward ethnic groups

AbstractAcross two experimental studies, this research examined the effects of positive and negative imagined intergroup contact on adolescents’ (Study 1, N = 124) and early adults’ (Study 2, N = 169) stereotype content, emotions, and behavioral intentions toward two immigrant groups in Spain: Ecuadorians, a valued group, and Moroccans, a devalued group. The results showed that the imagined contact valence influenced only adolescents’ outgroup evaluations and only toward Moroccans, the devalued targeted group. Specifically, negative contact indirectly triggered passive harm tendencies through increased negative emotions toward Moroccans. Our findings support previous studies regarding the stronger effect of negative contact on attitudes toward devalued outgroups.

The association between emotional symptoms and daily life stressors is not moderated by intergroup behaviours among school-going adolescents in Zambia

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to investigate the main effect and moderating effect of intergroup behaviours on the relationship between daily life stressors and emotional symptoms. Data was collected from 628 school going adolescents using the Daily Life Stressor Scale, emotional symptom subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Behaviours from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes - Treatment scale. Data showed that emotional symptoms and daily life stressors were common especially among girls. Daily life stressors, active harm and passive facilitation predicted increased emotional symptoms. However, contrary to the study hypothesis, active and passive harm, and active and passive facilitation did not moderate the relationship between daily life stressors and emotional symptoms. School based interventions focusing on reducing academic and interpersonal related daily life stressors should be considered in order to reduce emotional symptoms and improved wellbeing among school going adolescents.

What Mediates the Relationship Between Ethnic Discrimination and Stress? Coping Strategies and Perceived Social Support of Russian Immigrants in Germany.

ObjectiveExperiences of ethnic discrimination may constitute major stressors for ethnic minority groups. This study examined the associations between different forms of ethnic discrimination and levels of perceived stress in Russian immigrants living in Germany, taking into account potential moderating (in-group identification) and mediating (coping and social support) factors.MethodsRussian immigrants (N = 308) were assessed using online questionnaires (e.g., perceived stress scale, behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotype treatment scale, and brief COPE). Three forms of ethnic discrimination were examined: active harm (e.g., open aggression), passive harm (e.g., paternalistic behavior), and everyday discrimination (e.g., receiving poor service). Moderation by in-group identification and mediation via coping and social support were tested.ResultsPassive harm was more prevalent than everyday discrimination and active harm. Passive harm and everyday discrimination were associated with higher perceived stress (rs = .22 and .18, ps <.01), and in-group identification did not moderate these associations (ps >.27). The coping strategy self-blame mediated the association between active harm and stress. Substance use and self-blame mediated the association between passive harm and stress, whereas venting, behavioral disengagement, denial, self-blame, and social support mediated the association between everyday discrimination and stress. A direct effect remained for passive harm and everyday discrimination.ConclusionThe present study revealed that Russian immigrants encounter different forms of ethnic discrimination, and that this is associated with higher levels of stress. This association was partly explained by coping and social support, illustrating possibilities for interventions aimed at improving the use of adaptive coping strategies and promoting social support-seeking for Russian immigrants.

Parochial Empathy Predicts Reduced Altruism and the Endorsement of Passive Harm

Empathic failures are common in hostile intergroup contexts; repairing empathy is therefore a major focus of peacebuilding efforts. However, it is unclear which aspect of empathy is most relevant to intergroup conflict. Although trait empathic concern predicts prosociality in interpersonal settings, we hypothesized that the best predictor of meaningful intergroup attitudes and behaviors might not be the general capacity for empathy (i.e., trait empathy), but the difference in empathy felt for the in-group versus the out-group, or “parochial empathy.” Specifically, we predicted that out-group empathy would inhibit intergroup harm and promote intergroup helping, whereas in-group empathy would have the opposite effect. In three intergroup contexts—Americans regarding Arabs, Hungarians regarding refugees, Greeks regarding Germans—we found support for this hypothesis. In all samples, in-group and out-group empathy had independent, significant, and opposite effects on intergroup outcomes, controlling for trait empathic concern.

Structure and content of Native American stereotypic subgroups: Not just (ig)noble.

Prejudice against Native Americans as an overall group generally polarizes into positive and negative stereotypic extremes, but distinct subgroups may explain this variability. Using college student samples (Study 1), a preliminary study identified common Native American subgroups and then a main study (N = 153, 74% women, 73% White, mean age = 19 years) had participants rate these subgroups on basic dimensions of stereotype content (i.e., warmth and competence), elicited emotions (e.g., admiration, contempt), and elicited behaviors (e.g., facilitation, harm). In Study 2, these preliminary study and main study procedures were replicated using nationwide samples (main study: N = 139, 51% women, 78% White, mean age = 35 years). For the most part, similar Native American subgroups emerged in both samples. Using the stereotype content model (SCM; Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 2002), the subgroups were found to vary along a competence-by-warmth space. The majority of subgroups (e.g., alcoholics, lazy) were judged low in both competence and warmth. Additional subgroups (e.g., casino operators, warriors) were ambivalently judged as high on competence but low on warmth. Subgroups perceived as high in both competence and warmth elicited more admiration, those low in both competence and warmth elicited more contempt, those high in competence elicited more passive facilitation and less passive harm, and those high in warmth elicited more active facilitation and less active harm. Native American stereotypes are apparently characterized by both noble and ignoble subgroups, highlighting the importance of studying stereotypes at the subgroup level. (PsycINFO Database Record

Both harmful and (some) helpful behaviours from others are associated with increased expression of schizotypal traits

Negative treatment from others is related to elevated levels of trait schizotypy, signifying increased risk for psychosis, but associations with helpful behaviour have been much less studied. Using the Stereotype Content Model we tested the hypothesis that passive and active forms of help would be associated with increased and decreased expression of schizotypy, respectively. Schizotypal traits were assessed in students (N=631) using positive (Perceptual Aberration) and negative (Social Anhedonia) subscales of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales-Brief. Experiences of active (intentional) and passive (less deliberative) harm and help were assessed with the Behaviour from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes Treatment Scale. As predicted, the results showed that experiences of passive help from others were associated with a 2–3 fold increase in scores on schizotypy scales, whilst reports of active help tended to be associated with a decrease in scores on these scales. Results also showed that increased reports of active and passive harm were associated with elevated scores on negative and positive schizotypy subscales, consistent with prior research. These findings, bridging research on social stereotyping and schizotypal personality, challenge the assumption that helpful behaviour from others is always beneficial for individuals with schizotypal traits who are at increased risk for psychosis.

I will help you because we are similar: Quality of contact mediates the effect of perceived similarity on facilitative behaviour towards immigrants.

This research aimed to analyse interpersonal behaviour towards immigrants by exploring related psychosocial variables such as intergroup similarity and quality of intergroup contact. A new interpersonal behavioural tendencies scale was developed. In Study 1, Spanish participants reported their willingness to take different actions towards a Moroccan (i.e. a devalued target, n = 132) or an Ecuadorian (i.e. a valued target, n = 138), perceived intergroup similarity and quality of intergroup contact. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis identified the expected dimensions: active facilitation (AF), passive facilitation (PF), passive harm (PH) and active harm (AH). Participants reported less similarity, less pleasant contact, less AF and less PF, and more PH with respect to Moroccans relative to Ecuadorians. Quality of contact mediated the effect of perceived similarity on interpersonal behaviour (especially facilitative behaviour) towards immigrants. Study 2 (N = 134) confirmed that this mediation effect also applied to Romanian immigrants, and tested a serial mediation pathway, in which perceived similarity affected symbolic threat, which in turn affected quality of contact, which finally affected behaviour. Changing perceived intergroup similarity might be a way of improving the quality of contact with minority groups, and this would be expected to increase pro-social behaviour towards such groups.

Competence and warmth stereotypes prompt mental illness stigma through emotions

AbstractPublic stigma toward mental illness subgroups (11 mental illness subgroups and 2 subgroups perceived to have mental illness) was examined. Competence and warmth stereotypes were used to predict emotional reactions posited to mediate behavioral inclinations ranging from passive to active harm or facilitation. Fear mediated the relationship between low competence and warmth stereotypes and passive harm. Anger, and to a lesser extent fear, mediated the relationship between low warmth and active harm. Pity mediated the relationship between warmth and active facilitation. Neither envy nor admiration linked stereotypes to behavioral reactions. Results suggest that emotions share motivational direction with behavior, to approach or to avoid, rather than simply sharing valence. Implications for research on stigma toward mental illness subgroups are discussed.

A Threat-Emotion Profile Approach to Explaining Active Versus Passive Harm in Intergroup Relations

Research on the sociofunctional threat approach illustrates that people have distinct emotional reactions to different forms of threat from outgroups, such that there are distinct threat-emotion profiles. Drawing on emotion-appraisal theory, the present research investigated whether three threat-emotion profiles (obstacle-anger, contamination-disgust, and safety-fear) would be differentially related to active versus passive harm. In two studies, participants were randomly assigned to evaluate different outgroups and completed threat, emotion, and harm measures. Whereas the obstacle-anger profile was more likely to be associated with active, but not passive, harm, contamination-disgust, and safety-fear were more likely to be associated with passive harm. Implications for prejudice and prejudice-reduction are discussed.

When Group Memberships are Negative: The Concept, Measurement, and Behavioral Implications of Psychological Disidentification

This research introduces a multi-component model of ingroup disidentification that distinguishes three disidentification components (detachment, dissatisfaction, and dissimilarity). In Studies 1a (N = 168) and 1b (N = 215), the authors developed a measurement scale that assesses these components, and examined alternative factorial structures. Study 2 (N = 115) provides evidence that the disidentification scale performs better at distinguishing between disidentification and nonidentification than an established identification scale. Using additional data from Studies 1b and 2, Studies 3a and 3b examined emotions and behavioral intentions as correlates of disidentification and revealed that the disidentification components predict negative ingroup-directed behavioral intentions (active harm, passive harm, and passive facilitation) and identity concealment over and above measures of identification. Theoretical implications for research on social stigma and social change are discussed.

The mismeasure of morals: Antisocial personality traits predict utilitarian responses to moral dilemmas

Researchers have recently argued that utilitarianism is the appropriate framework by which to evaluate moral judgment, and that individuals who endorse non-utilitarian solutions to moral dilemmas (involving active vs. passive harm) are committing an error. We report a study in which participants responded to a battery of personality assessments and a set of dilemmas that pit utilitarian and non-utilitarian options against each other. Participants who indicated greater endorsement of utilitarian solutions had higher scores on measures of Psychopathy, machiavellianism, and life meaninglessness. These results question the widely-used methods by which lay moral judgments are evaluated, as these approaches lead to the counterintuitive conclusion that those individuals who are least prone to moral errors also possess a set of psychological characteristics that many would consider prototypically immoral.

What triggers helping versus harming of ambivalent groups? Effects of the relative salience of warmth versus competence

According to the behavior from intergroup affect and stereotypes (BIAS) map, groups stereotyped as cold and competent receive active harm and passive facilitation, whereas groups stereotyped as warm and incompetent receive active facilitation and passive harm. Extending previous research, we conducted four studies to examine what determines helping and what determines harming behaviors toward ambivalent groups. In Study 1 ( N = 58) we demonstrated that groups stereotyped as cold and competent evoke intentions of active harm due to a relative salience of their lack of warmth, whereas they elicit intentions of passive facilitation due to a relative salience of their competence. In Study 2 ( N = 88) we demonstrated that groups stereotyped as warm and incompetent elicit intentions of active facilitation due to a relative salience of their warmth, whereas they elicit intentions of passive harm due to a relative salience of their lack of competence. Studies 3 ( N = 54) and 4 ( N = 67) replicated these findings and further demonstrated that the effects on active, but not passive, behaviors were mediated by distinct emotions. Implications for ambivalent groups are discussed.

The BIAS–Treatment Scale (BIAS–TS): A Measure of the Subjective Experience of Active and Passive Harm and Facilitation

This article describes the Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes–Treatment Scale (BIAS–TS), a self-report measure of experiences of active harm, passive harm, active facilitation, and passive facilitation. The BIAS–TS was derived from the Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes (BIAS) Map, and provided reliable, replicable, and stable indexes of different harmful and facilitatory behaviors that people encounter in their day-to-day lives from multiple sources (Studies 1 and 2). The BIAS–TS subscales were uniquely associated with concurrent subjective well-being, and were distinct from the HEXACO dimensions of personality, Social Dominance Orientation, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism (Study 3). The BIAS–TS also provided novel support for the subordinate-male target hypothesis proposed by social dominance theory (Study 4). The BIAS–TS instruction set can be easily reworded to assess perceived discrimination and intergroup rejection from specific or multiple general sources and is applicable in numerous contexts. A copy of the BIAS–TS is included.

Societal Stereotypes and the Legitimation of Intergroup Behavior in Germany and New Zealand

Stereotypes have a legitimizing function. Results from Germany (N = 71) and New Zealand (N = 103) indicated that the perceived permissibility of acting toward groups with active or passive harm versus facilitation depends upon consensually shared stereotypes of the target group. Our findings were generally consistent with predictions derived from the BIAS Map in both nations, as the permissibility of specific behaviors was reliably associated with target group warmth-competence stereotype combinations. However, evaluations of warmth trumped evaluations of the competence of target groups in the extent to which they legitimized perceptions of active and passive harm directed toward them. Finally, the extent to which warmth-competence stereotypes legitimized perceptions of the acceptability of harm and facilitation was unsystematically related to individual differences in Social Dominance Orientation. People high in Social Dominance Orientation, but not Right-Wing Authoritarianism, viewed harmful behaviors as generally more permissible irrespective of specific target group stereotypes, and this pattern held cross-culturally.

University students’ explanations for their descriptions of people who stutter: An exploratory mixed model study

Semantic differential instruments are often used to assess fluent speakers’ attitudes toward people who stutter (PWS). Such instruments are prone to response bias and often lack the power to explain respondents’ general impressions of PWS. To address these concerns 149 fluent university students completed an open-ended questionnaire in which they described PWS and provided an explanation for their descriptions. A mixed model design with a qualitative emphasis allowed for thematic as well as quantitative data analysis. The results suggest that individuals may have simultaneously positive and negative attitudes toward PWS regardless of gender or familiarity with PWS. Multiple explanations were provided and took into account personal and societal reactions to stuttering. Fluent speakers appear to perceive PWS as being likeable individuals who are poor communicators, a combination of high-warmth and low-competence that elicits pity and passive harm from listeners according to social psychologists ( Cuddy et al., 2008). The implications of these findings and future research directions are discussed. Educational objectives After reading this article, the reader will be able to: (1) describe issues of concern related to the measurement of attitudes toward PWS; (2) describe how mixed (qualitative and quantitative) designs can contribute to a deeper understanding of fluent speakers’ attitudes toward PWS; and (3) discuss how the ways in which fluent speakers’ thoughts about stuttering and PWS can influence their emotions and behaviors when in the presence of someone who stutters.