Passenger Car Research Articles

“Let the Driver off the Hook?” moral decisions of autonomous cars and their impact on consumer well-being

Equipped with sophisticated, AI-based driver assistance systems, passenger cars are becoming increasingly intelligent. It seems that in a matter of a few years, fully autonomous vehicles will operate without any driver intervention. In this context, researchers are addressing the question of how fully automated vehicles should make decisions in critical situations. Should they spare the driver, children jumping out into the road or elderly people standing on the sidewalk? Projects such as MIT’s Moral Machine are investigating the preferences of people from different nations and cultures for ethical decision algorithms. Evaluations of these automated decisions and how the may impact consumer perception and well-being are still scarce. In our experimental study, participants experienced a simulator-based driving situation in a fully autonomous car, after which they were confronted with alternative scenarios requiring automated action by the car in a critical situation. We measured the emotional status and well-being of our test-persons (N=33) in those critical situations using facial expression recognition (FER), electroencephalography (EEG), and standardized questions. The results show that there are detectable differences between the scenarios with respect to emotions as well as subjective well-being and behavioral intentions in the test group’s responses to the questionnaire. Regarding FER and EEG, no statistically significant differences could be shown due to the small subsample.

Effect of alternative fuels on the emissions of a passenger car under real-world driving conditions: a comparison of biodiesel, gas-to-liquid, coal to liquid.

Fossil fuel energy crisis and environmental pollution have initiated the scientific research on alternative fuels. Biodiesel (B100), gas to liquid (G100), and coal to liquid (C100) are superb selections to be substitutes for conventional diesel. To better investigate the emission characteristics of the alternative fuels mentioned above, a portable emission measurement system (PEMS) was used to carry out this study under real-world driving conditions. Results showed that the driving conditions had a notable effect on the vehicle emissions, the CO, THC, and CO2 emissions were higher under urban condition, and the NOx, PM (particle mass), and PN (particle number) emissions were higher under suburban condition. The expressway condition resulted in lower emissions except for PN due to more nucleation particles emitted. The use of B100, G100, and C100 fuels led to a reduction of more than 50% in the CO emission, especially for the C100, but the reduction effects for the THC were not obvious, and among them, G100 is the most prominent. Higher NOx emission was emitted after using the three fuels, especially for the B100; meanwhile, B100 increased the CO2, but G100 and C100 decreased the CO2 emission compared with D100. The PN emissions reduced by 1-2 orders of magnitude in comparison with those from D100 after using the three alternative fuels, and more than 50% of the PM could be reduced. B100 has the most significant particle reduction effect due to its oxygen-containing property, and it produced an evidently higher proportion of nucleation particles than D100, followed by G100 and C100.

Effect of luminance of head-up displays on recognition of visual objects on roads

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of visual obstruction when a head-up display (HUD) is presented in front of a driver's field of view. BackgroundThe use of HUDs is expected to increase due to advances in augmented reality (AR) technology. A conventional HUD is displayed at a relatively low position in relation to the driver's viewpoint and has little effect on their front view. However, while an HUD, such as the AR-HUD, is presented in front of the driver's field of vision and helps them in presenting ADAS information, there is a concern that this display may obscure visual objects on the road from the driver's field of vision. MethodAn experiment using a mockup consisting of a HUD and a driver's seat was conducted with 28 participants. A passenger car, motorcycle, and crossing pedestrian were presented as visual objects on a 65-in monitor behind the image of the HUD. Participants were asked questions under different conditions with changes in the HUD luminance and asked to correctly answer questions regarding changes in the inter-vehicle distance and the existence of visual objects on the road. The number of correct answers provided by the participants was recorded. ResultsThe experimental results revealed that the HUD had an effect under the twilight condition wherein the background luminance was low. Furthermore, analyzing the number of correct answers for each visual target revealed that the HUD had an effect under conditions wherein the size of the visual object was small. ConclusionIt was experimentally derived that the luminance ratio Rluminance = 1.1 was the threshold value that affected the recognition of the visual object in the background when the HUD was presented in front of the driver's field of view. ImplicationThe threshold value of the luminance ratio Rluminance obtained in this study can be considered when deciding how to properly display the HUD in front of the driver's field of view.

Choosing to drive from alcohol serving establishments (ASEs).

The prevalence of Driving Under the Influence (DUI) of alcohol or drugs has become a prominent factor in the occurrence of severe road crashes worldwide. Driving often occurs after visiting, and presumably drinking, at Alcohol-Serving Establishments (ASEs), and is thus of interest as a possible source of DUI events. We apply statistical and machine learning models to the Victorian Integrated Survey of Travel and Activity (VISTA) to identify factors that contribute to driving in trips from ASEs in Australia's state of Victoria. Our results highlight that approximately 10% of individuals who traveled to ASEs as car passengers switched to driving after leaving there. It was also observed that travel distance shorter than 1 km and activity duration between 3 and 4 h positively impacts the mode switching from car driver to other modes in ASEs trips. Further findings illustrate a decline in driving after midnight, with an increase in the use of public transport and taxis. Individuals prefer driving for long-distance ASEs trips and walking for short distances. Going home also increased the likelihood of driving, whereas engaging in other social activities did not. Longer stays at ASEs and leaving vehicles overnight reduce the propensity to drive, likely due to increased alcohol consumption during these times. These findings suggest behavioral adjustments that can mitigate driving under the influence. Specifically, people may walk for short-distance trips and use public transport or taxis for longer ASEs trips.

Potential of e-bikes to replace passenger car trips and reduce greenhouse gas emissions

In Sweden, the transport sector accounts for 32% of greenhouse gas emissions, with passenger cars contributing to 62% of these. In this context, electric bikes, commonly known as e-bikes, have emerged as a promising solution for reducing carbon emissions in the transport sector. This paper explores the potential of e-bikes in substituting passenger car trips and reducing transportation-related emissions. To achieve this objective, we use a synthetic population in the Västra Götaland (VG) region, Sweden, with daily activity schedules and simulate an average weekday of travelling with e-bikes instead of their private cars. For assessing the potential for e-bike substitution, the current literature often relies on trip-level analysis, which does not adequately consider people’s daily travel-activity plans, resulting in an unrealistic estimation of replaceable trips and their carbon emissions reduction. Combining an e-bike speed model by agents’ characteristics and an open-source routing engine, our simulation identifies potential car trips that can be replaced with e-bikes, considering all activities and the travel between them for an average weekday. The simulation results suggest that e-bikes could replace 57.6% of car trips. Building on this, we explore the potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from car trips taken by residents in the study area. If the top 70% of feasible car users, ranked by shortest to longest daily travel distances, switch to e-bikes, emissions could be reduced by 10.1% compared to 2018 levels. If all feasible car users adopt e-bikes, a reduction of up to 22.8% in emissions could be achieved, representing the upper limit presented by our study. The findings also reveal that males under 40 years old provide the highest e-bike substitution rates in their daily activity schedules, and in areas with a high population density, replaceable car trips are more common than in rural areas. This research provides valuable insights into e-bike substitution and its impact on emission reduction. It contributes to the existing literature through its modelling approach that realistically considers individuals’ socio-demographic characteristics and daily activity schedules when assessing the substitution potential.

Clustering the European Union electric vehicle markets: A scenario analysis until 2035

Electric vehicles (EVs) play a crucial role in the ongoing road transportation transition. European regulations on greenhouse gas emissions significantly boosted EV new registrations across most European Union (EU) countries. To model their future development in Europe, we adopt a hierarchical clustering approach, which allows us to group the countries under 7 clusters based on how evolved they are in the transition to net zero-emission passenger car new registrations. Subsequently, we select representative countries for each identified cluster. By using these representative countries, we run a scenario analysis for each cluster to obtain the electrification path of the different passenger car markets across the EU until 2035. In our scenario, innovator clusters are well-positioned to achieve the CO2 zero-emission passenger car target before 2035. However, other clusters, represented by Poland and Greece, are lagging behind even after 2030 and might face challenges to reach the target in 2035.

Seat to beat: Novel capacitive ECG integration for in-car cardiovascular measurement

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a leading cause of global mortality, responsible for approximately one in five deaths. In response to these concerning statistics, there is a growing need for innovative solutions enabling cardiac monitoring beyond medical facilities. This paper demonstrates the fabrication and development of a novel system designed to be integrated into passenger car seats, facilitating continuous monitoring of passengers’ cardiac activity. The system comprises a capacitive electrode prototype, a custom-designed analog signal processing circuit, and a computing unit. Two ultrathin capacitive electrodes were fabricated with a diameter of 56.42 mm protected by a guard layer to reduce noise. The amplification circuitry was comprised of operational amplifiers tasked with filtering and conditioning the electrocardiogram (ECG) signal. Heart rates calculated from our measurements were comparable with clinical ECG. The experimental setup underwent testing on human subjects while they were in a state of tranquil sitting within passenger cars and also in laboratory conditions. The proposed system offers the flexibility for single and dual power supplies in full capacitive or hybrid mode. Our experimental results confirm the system’s feasibility and its capability to record high-quality signals from weak biopotentials, highlighting its potential for real-world applications.

A Comprehensive Method for Computing Non-Linear Elastokinematic Properties of Passenger Car Suspension Systems: Double Wishbone Case Study

Abstract Suspension and steering design play a major role in ensuring the correct dynamic behavior of road vehicles. Passenger cars are especially demanding from this point of view: NVH and ride comfort requirements often collide with active safety-related requirements such as road holding in steady-state conditions and stability in transients. Driving pleasure is also important for market success, therefore accurate steering feedback and predictable handling properties are additional priorities. Since flexible bushings are used as interface between the suspension arms and the chassis, extra degrees-of-freedom make the design process a complex task. While the use of a multibody software is common practice in the industry, a dedicated computational tool can be more practical and straightforward, especially when undertaking the design of a new suspension concept ground-up. The paper presents a computational methodology for the design of an independent suspension with the associated kinematic and compliance attributes. Typical elastokinematic properties like toe, camber, wheelbase, and track variations versus tyre forces and moments can be computed by means of a dedicated software tool. A sort of validation was performed either by means of a comparison with a MathWorks Simscape® Multibody based model. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is given as an example. Computationally, the method proposed is intuitively based on the equilibrium equations. The nonlinear equations are then solved with Newton–Raphson algorithm. The method can be also optimized for computational efficiency and is thoroughly described so that the reader can easily replicate it in the desired programing environment.

Internal combustion engine acoustic diagnostics

Introduction. To ensure stable performance of transport and technological machines, constant monitoring of their technical condition is necessary. Timely diagnosis is difficult to carry out when working in remote regions, as well as when transporting goods over long distances due to the lack of closely located maintenance centers.Materials and methods. One of the solutions to the above problem is the use of a diagnostic method based on sound parameters. In particular, this method is applicable to power plants. Its advantage is the ability to quickly assess the condition of the engine mechanisms and systems on site using a portable device (without the use of large-sized and low-mobility equipment) by non-destructive testing. Thus, the research and implementation of the acoustic diagnostic method is promising and in demand today. One of the most important areas for improving power plants today is the automation of control processes for their operation based on the use of electronics and microprocessor systems. With a positive effect on the efficiency of the engine, these complex systems expand the range of its potential malfunctions. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the fundamental possibility of determining and comparing the acoustic parameters of an engine with and without violations of the operating mode in the event of failures in electronic control systems of its operation. As an example, the Ford Focus passenger car was chosen as the object of the study. A malfunction in the electronic ignition module was used as a test fault. The obtained spectral patterns of the sound radiation of the internal combustion engine (with and without violations of the operating mode) enable to determine the nature of the engine malfunction by sound parameters.Results. A frequency range at which it is possible to identify the spectral pattern of an engine with impaired operation and an engine without impaired operation was obtained. This range was 6,000-6,500 Hz, since in this segment the sound level reaches more than 40 dB.Discussions and conclusions. The conducted experiment is the initial stage of a large-scale experimental study, the result of which will serve as a starting point for the introduction of the acoustic method into the process of diagnosing electronic control systems for internal combustion engines.

Proposed Index for Assigning an Environmental Label to Passenger Cars

At present, the classification of vehicles by means of the environmental label aims to positively distinguish the most environmentally friendly vehicles and to be an effective instrument at the service of municipal policies, both to restrict traffic during high pollution periods and to promote new technologies through tax benefits and other incentives related to mobility and the environment. However, there is a great deal of controversy about the awarding of this environmental label, since it is basically based only on the year of manufacture of the vehicle and the type of fuel it uses, without taking into account many other factors that influence the environmental characterization of a vehicle. This paper presents a proposal for an index to characterize passenger cars from an environmental point of view, considering other additional factors, such as tire wear and particulate emissions during braking. The proposed index is applied to a series of passenger cars representative of the segments currently present in the Spanish market. The index considers seven vehicle parameters. Up to three cases with different parameter weights are analyzed. This index provides greater discrimination of the environmental performance of vehicles than the current eco-labeling system, in each of the three cases studied.

New NOx and NO2 vehicle emission curves, and their implications for emissions inventories and air pollution modelling

Emissions of NOx and primary NO2 from road transport sources are highly influential in NO2 exposure at both local and regional scales; quantifying these accurately is therefore an important but challenging component of emissions inventory and air pollution model development. Results are presented from an urban air pollution model, after creation of new speed-emissions curves for NOx through the combination of available vehicle drive cycles and nearly 500,000 UK-based remote sensing measurements of exhaust emissions. Vehicle power-based relationships are applied to 1 Hz drive cycle datasets, with random sampling of the outputs allowing generation of the new curves. These demonstrate significantly higher emissions than those predicted by existing curves for most Euro VI HGVs, and among successive petrol and diesel passenger cars; this may be partly explained by relatively low UK ambient temperatures, as well as an underestimation of the level of tampering with HGV SCR systems. Implementation of the curves in a detailed emissions inventory for London, UK in 2019 leads to substantially improved air pollution model performance for NOx/NO2; normalised mean bias reduces in magnitude, changing from −0.18 to +0.01 for NOx and −0.12 to +0.01 for NO2. The curves developed are widely applicable, and the novel approach outlined has the potential to improve source apportionment and future model predictions under differing policy scenarios, produce better exposure estimates for health-related studies and revise NOx emissions budgets for compliance with the NEC Directive, all of which are important for the development of mitigation policies.

Research on modeling and control strategy of zero-carbon hybrid power system based on the ammonia-hydrogen engine

In the context of carbon neutrality, high efficiency, low carbon, and zero environmental impact have become an essential development direction of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Hydrogen energy has the advantage of having a high calorific value. It also has zero carbon emissions and is considered one of the significant alternative fuels for ICEs. Moreover, ammonia has a high octane number and has an anti-knock effect, which facilitates the mitigation of knock in hydrogen ICEs and potentially mitigates the negative impact of knock on engine volume power. Scholars have carried out some explorations on ammonia-hydrogen ICEs (AHICE), which have been applied in marine power systems. It is anticipated that AHICE will become one of the most significant development directions in the field of vehicle power systems in the future. However, there are still some problems with using AHICEs in passenger cars. The proposed work presented a zero-carbon hybrid power system based on an AHICE. Specifically, the external characteristics curve and power output boundary were obtained by bench experiments of the ICE under wide open throttle (WOT) conditions and diverse engine speeds and λ. Indeed, a hybrid system model consisting of an AHICE and a power battery was built where the AHICE was used to respond to the demanded power and the power battery was used to provide additional power and store the electrical energy converted from braking. Incidentally, an engine control strategy was developed to expand the knock limit and power boundary by dynamically adjusting the ammonia-hydrogen volume ratio. Finally, a hybrid power system simulation model was established based on MATLAB/Simulink. The CLTC-P and WLTC simulation results demonstrated that the zero-carbon hybrid system which comprised AHICE and power battery can work in the high efficiency area. The AHICE demonstrates lower fuel consumption while satisfying power requirements. This work provides a promising route to zero-carbon hybrid technology for the passenger car industry facing the challenge of carbon neutrality.

Effect of number of triggers and shape of crash box on energy absorption during experimental collision

The capacity of passenger car crash boxes to absorb energy during crashes has been the subject of extensive research, which started with the creation of multiple crash box models, changes in crash box filling, and the inclusion of crash box triggers. On the other hand, no research has been done on the combination of axle trigger holes, nine-cell columns, and crash box models. The results of the experiment on the energy-absorbing capacity of AA6061-T4 crash box specimens under compressive loads are presented in this paper. The compression tests were conducted on a Universal Testing Machine with a maximum force capability of 1000 kN and a speed capability of 5 mm/s. Three models are used in crash box modeling. A cross-section of the model with a round hole-shaped trigger variation is included in these three versions. It is established that the hexagonal Frusta type with two holes absorbs the highest energy at 33.30 kJ, and has a displacement of 4.12 mm and a maximum force of 348.5 kN. The energy absorption capacity of the crash box was found to be increased by combining frusta versions of the hexagon model with two holes and nine-cell column filling.

Uncovering driving factors and spatiotemporal patterns of urban passenger car CO2 emissions: A case study in Hangzhou, China

While passenger cars offer the convenience of door-to-door travel, they are responsible for a substantial share of urban traffic-related carbon emissions, accounting for 44% of the global transport sector's emissions in 2022. Existing studies have not adequately identified the driving factors and spatiotemporal patterns of Passenger car CO2 Emissions (PCEs). To fill this gap, a comprehensive analytical framework for analysing PCE, encompassing several key components, has been developed. First, the PCE is estimated at a fine-grained level by utilising million-scale GPS trajectory data. Secondly, road network and urban functional features are extracted based on multi-source data, examining their nonlinear impacts on PCE. The driving factors of PCE during peak and off-peak periods are identified based on interpretable factor analysis. Finally, latent space clustering techniques are applied to reveal the spatiotemporal patterns of PCE, verified by significance tests. The effectiveness of this framework is demonstrated via a case study in Hangzhou, China. Notably, during peak hours, the driving factors of PCE are the road network's closeness centrality, service-related Points of Interest (POI) density, and trunk road density. In addition, five distinctive PCE patterns are identified. These findings facilitate the development of targeted and differentiated passenger car traffic management strategies, promoting carbon emission reduction in the transport sector.

Cannabis policy bundles and traffic fatalities in the American States over time.

Since 1996, 38 US states have legalized access to cannabis (medical and/or adult-use recreational). We aimed to estimate the effect of three dimensions of state cannabis policy design - pharmaceutical, permissive and fiscal - on levels of overall, alcohol-impaired, occupant, light truck and pedestrian fatality rates. Observational study of US states' overall, alcohol-impaired, occupant, light truck and pedestrian fatalities between 1994 and 2020. The unit of analysis was at the state level, consisting of 50 states and 27 years of time series data, resulting in a total of 1350 state-year observations. Fatality rates associated with alcohol-impaired, pedestrian, total occupant, passenger car and light truck fatality rates were obtained from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and normalized per 10 billion vehicle miles traveled. State cannabis policies are measured in three bundles (scales): pharmaceutical, permissive and fiscal. The pharmaceutical bundle was associated with increases in all fatality rates [β = 0.145; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.116-0.173; P < 0.000]. The permissive bundle was associated with lower overall fatality rates (β = -0.319; 95% CI = -0.361 to -0.277; P < 0.000). The fiscal bundle was generally associated with higher fatality rates (β = 0.062; 95% CI = 0.043-0.081; P < 0.000), occupant (β = 0.070; 95% CI = 0.042-0.098; P < 0.000), light trucks (β = 0.049; 95% CI = 0.026-0.072; P < 0.000). US state cannabis regulations influence traffic safety. Greater permissiveness in US state cannabis regulations does not appear to correlate with traffic fatality rate increases, but greater medicalization and fiscal operation does.

Modification of Distillation Engines Using Used Oil into Diesel and Premium Fuel Using Circular Condensation

In the era of the industrial revolution which is very developed today, the automotive world is also increasing, especially in vehicles that are fueled by premium diesel, due to the increasing number of vehicle demand in the wider community as more and more innovations are issued to create something latest and new, From data (Central Statistics Agency 2020) vehicles on Indonesian roads from passenger cars, goods, motorcycles, buses reached 14. Behind the positive effects due to the increasing development of the automotive world, there are also negative effects, one of which is pollution and waste generated from vehicle lubricants, oil, from periodic replacements resulting from engine maintenance that must be carried out. So the author is interested in designing a distillation machine with a condenser to convert used oil into base oil (base oil gar reduces the negative impact, the method used is by literature review, field study, preparation and testing, although the results of the test were obtained from 3 samples, namely A, B, and C with different cooking times and temperatures, it was found that the physical results obtained were too different from each other, However, not with the content in the sample, which was tested using (GC-MS) it was found that compounds with different amounts were found, namely sample A with 48 compounds, Sample B with 42 compounds and Sample C with 68 compounds, the most compounds were found in the sample with the highest cooking time and temperature with a time of 160 minutes and a temperature of 254 °C. It was found that only sample A had a premium characteristic, namely the compound octane. So that this research can be used in the community.

Dynamic Modeling and Performance Evaluation of Using Spacer Fabrics as Shock Absorbers in Helmet of the Car Passenger

Dynamic Modeling and Performance Evaluation of Using Spacer Fabrics as Shock Absorbers in Helmet of the Car Passenger

Materials and Products Development Based on a Novelty Approach to Quality and Life Cycle Assessment (QLCA).

The development of materials and the products made from them should respond to new challenges posed by market changes and also by climate change. Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to develop a method that supports the sustainable development of materials and the products made from them based on an aggregated indicator of quality and environmental load in the life cycle (QLCA). The testing and illustration of the QLCA method included a passenger car tyre and nine prototypes. These prototypes were described using eight quality criteria: season, class, size of the load index, speed index, rolling, adhesion, and external noise. Then, customer expectations regarding the importance of the criteria and satisfaction with the indicators in the current and modified states were obtained. Based on the customer assessment, the quality indicators of the prototypes were assessed. This assessment was supported by the weighted sum model (WSM) and the entropy method. Then, life cycle assessment for the reference tyre was performed using the Ecoinvent database in the OpenLCA program. LCA indicators were modelled for other prototypes, taking into account quality changes. As a result of the verification of the method, an aggregated QLCA indicator was estimated, based on which it was possible to select the most favourable (qualitatively and environmentally) prototype out of nine. This was the P4 prototype (QLCA = 0.57). The next position in the ranking was taken by P7 (QLCA = 0.43). The QLCA method can be used to determine the direction of development of materials and products in terms of their sustainable development.

Environmental impacts of oil extraction in blocks 16 and 67 of the Yasuní Reserve in the Amazonian Forest: Combined qualitative and Life-Cycle Assessment

This research analyses 24 years of oil extraction in blocks 16 and 67 of the Yasuní National Park (YNP) in the Amazonian Forest of Ecuador, one of the most biodiverse spaces in the world and with the current presence of ancient indigenous communities. As a novel contribution, we have carried out a Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) that quantifies the footprints associated with the extraction, transportation, refining, distribution and final uses of the oil in four different scenarios (oil for asphalt use, electricity, marine fuel and passenger car transport). This study also sheds light on the energy return at the point of use of different oil-derivatives, and complements this with a qualitative analysis of the social, cultural and environmental implications for the Waorani communities. We conclude that the environmental burdens of the extraction process in blocks 16 and 67 in 2015 were greater than those of countries such as the United States, Saudi Arabia and Indonesia, based on the analysis of 11 impact categories. The blocks' operation is the most unfavourable for the categories of Terrestrial Acidification Potential (TAP), Global Warming Potential (GWP), Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Potential (TEP) and Ecosystem Quality Loss Potential (EQL), with increments of 804.15 %, 105.36 %, 506.29 % and 210.73 %, respectively, in relation to the average of the rest of the extraction systems analysed. Specifically, the present case study shows 75.18 % higher impacts in the blocks addressed, when compared to the Ecuadorian average. During the period 1999-2022, the carbon emissions associated with the oil extraction in these blocks have increased by 139.01%. It has been detected a neo-colonial economic behaviour: while the Ecuadorian state received 21% of the sales, the Spanish government and the oil companies received, on average, 38% and 41% of the per-litre average fuel price, respectively. Thus, 79% of the income stayed in the Global North. We conclude that, on average, 19.64 % of the impacts associated with crude oil production and consumption occur in the Amazonian region of the YNP, depending on the fuel used and the consumption mechanism. For the Global Warming Potential (GWP) impact category, the extraction process carries, on average, 34.51 % of the weight in all of the life-cycle impacts, depending on the consumption scenario. It was also estimated that to be able to use 0.33 kWh of electricity from fuel combustion, 0.47 kWh of energy for goods transport and 0.20 kWh for passenger transport, an investment of 1 kWh is required, with an average extended EROI of 1:3.33. According to the qualitative analysis performed, it has been concluded that the main local impacts are related to the obstacles in environmental monitoring and information, the economic dependence of the communities on the oil extraction company, and cultural transformations; impacts that are not easily quantifiable or detectable using other methodologies. The combination of the qualitative analysis and LCA showed that the neo-colonial economic distribution did not compensate the social and environmental impacts of the oil extraction occurred in the YNP.

Comparison of high mileage LPG cars in different technical condition in Czechia: Particle-bound PAHs

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is represented in the literature as a transport fuel with lower regulated and non-regulated emissions compared to petrol. For the purpose of this paper, real-world emissions measurements were performed on a random sample of four commonly operated passenger vehicles with higher mileage (over 200 thousand km) and on a new one. The aim is to compare the emission factors of particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in dual-fuelled passenger cars running on LPG and petrol, or rather to compare the emission factors of the two fuel types. PAH concentrations are determined by gas chromatography based on the analysis of particles captured on a filter during isokinetic sampling of the exhaust gas during driving in real traffic. In terms of the sum of the 8 most hazardous PAHs analysed, LPG fuelling reduced the total (summary) emission factor of only two of the vehicles analysed, by 22% and 26% respectively compared to petrol. For the remaining vehicles, there was an increase in the total emission factor ranging from 4.4 to 68.8%. The results show that in terms of particle-bound PAHs, the benefit of LPG fuel in terms of vehicle emissions may not be so clear-cut in real-world tests and it depends very much on whether a suitable propulsion system is fitted to the vehicle, how it is set up and how the vehicle is serviced (i.e. the vehicle overall condition).