Partner Preference Research Articles

A cluster analysis of the global wind power industry: Insights for renewable energy business stakeholders and environmental policy decision makers

AbstractIn light of an ongoing climate change and an increasing fragility of fossil energy supply due to global political tensions, the adoption of renewable energy sources is of utmost importance for economic and social prosperity. This study targets to endeavor major value chain configurations within the global wind power industry network based on a data set of 326 relationships established by the 10 globally leading wind turbine firms covering a time span of 15 years. We discuss the demand side and provide an overview of the main wind power investment target countries and compare the importance of different regions. On the supply side, we analyze and identify eight important firm clusters within the global wind power business network. Concerning our sample, we elaborate horizontal and vertical relationship links, their collaboration patterns, regional partner preferences, and their value chain competences, thus providing valuable insights into the competitive structures of the wind power industry. By doing so, we open the debate on appropriate and efficient firm strategies within renewable industries. As consequence, we provide robust empirical evidence on global wind power industry architectures and corresponding competitive firm forces for the future. As we found that the industry is currently divided into eight main global industry clusters, our study delivers valuable industry network insights addressing managerial, political, and socioeconomic decision makers in order to secure future ecological and economic prosperity in a challenging world.

Mate choice in a promiscuous poison frog.

In many animal species, members of one sex, most often females, exhibit a strong preference for mating partners with particular traits or resources. However, when females sequentially mate with multiple partners, strategies underlying female choice are not very well understood. Particularly, little is known if under such sequential polyandry females mate truly randomly, or if they actively try to spread mating events across multiple partners. In the present study, we used the highly promiscuous poison frog Allobates femoralis to investigate whether promiscuity could result from a preference for novel mates. Furthermore, we examined the importance of call characteristics for mate choice. We conducted mate choice experiments in a laboratory setup, by presenting females with recent mating partners or novel males. We recorded call characteristics of both males and the time females spent close to each male. In our trials, females preferred previous mating partners over novel males and also males with shorter advertisement calls. Results from previous studies on A.femoralis suggest that females in our trials recognized previous partners based on individual call characteristics. While mating decisions in the wild and in the laboratory might differ, our study provides first evidence for female mate choice in a poison frog with sequential polyandry.

Job Prestige and Mobile Dating Success: A Field Experiment

Research using data on offline couple formation has confirmed predictions from evolutionary psychology that women (not men) attach value to the earnings potential of a potential partner. In this study, we examine whether the partner preferences with respect to earnings potential survive in an online context with fewer search and social frictions. We did this by means of a field experiment on the popular mobile dating app Tinder. Thirty-two fictitious Tinder profiles that randomly differed in job status and job prestige were evaluated by 4800 other, real Tinder users. We find that both men and women do not use job status or job prestige as a determinant of whom to show initial interest in on Tinder. However, we do find evidence that, after this initial phase, men less frequently start a conversation with women when those women are unemployed. Still, also then men do not care about the particular job prestige of employed women.

You reap what you sow: how proactive individuals are selected as preferred work partners

You reap what you sow: how proactive individuals are selected as preferred work partners

The form and function of chimpanzee buttress drumming

Many animal species use vocal and nonvocal acoustic signals to communicate over large distances. Wild chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes , drum on the buttress roots of trees, generating low-frequency sounds that can reach distances of over 1 km. Buttress drumming is produced in bouts of beats and is often accompanied by pant hoots, the species-typical long-distance vocalization. We investigated whether individual differences exist in the acoustic structure of drumming bouts produced by male chimpanzees of the Waibira community in the Budongo Forest in Uganda, and whether individual, contextual and social factors affected their use of drumming. We found individual differences in drumming bouts produced by seven male chimpanzees during travel events as well as in their timing within the pant hoot, and discriminated specific patterns of beats for some chimpanzees. In contrast, we found no evidence for individual differences in the acoustic structure of drumming bouts produced by four males during displays. Together these findings suggest that chimpanzees may be able to choose to encode identity within individual drumming ‘signatures’. Chimpanzees drummed less frequently as their party size increased. We found no evidence that the age of the signaller or the presence of preferred social partners, higher-ranking males or females in oestrus affected the use of drumming. These findings suggest there may be flexibility in buttress drumming across social and behavioural contexts and provide support for the hypothesis that, by encoding individual identity, long-distance drumming may be used to facilitate chimpanzee fission–fusion social dynamics. • Chimpanzees produce low-frequency sounds by drumming on buttress roots of trees. • Drumming is used across contexts with apparently long- and short-distance functions. • Chimpanzee drums encode individual signatures in travel events but not in displays. • Patterns of production suggest drumming coordinates fission–fusion dynamics.

Spousal age-gaps, partner preferences, and consequences for well-being in four Colombian communities

Across cultures, women tend to marry older men. This phenomenon is commonly described as the result of evolved mate choice preferences, which cause men to base reproductive decisions on cues of youth and fertility in women, and women to base such decisions on cues of wealth and status in men. Other researchers have challenged this idea, arguing that husband-older spousal age-gaps might not be consistent with the joint preferences of men and women; age-gaps might instead arise as the result of sexual conflict. In such cases, the realized age-gap could benefit one party at a cost to the other. In practice, large age-gaps may result in negative outcomes for younger women married to older men—e.g., because of power differences in these relationships. Testing for the existence of sexual conflict over the size of the spousal age-gap in Tanzania, researchers found no evidence that large age-gaps are harmful to women. Here, we conceptually replicate this previous work, and assess the relationship between spousal age-gaps, partner preferences, and individual well-being in four communities in Colombia. We extend prior methods by inferring the size of idealized age-gaps using network structured mate-choice games, and measuring the realized age-gap directly among ever-married partners. Our analyses suggest that there is limited evidence of sexual conflict over the size of the spousal age-gap in these communities. First, realized age-gaps are not large on average—around 1–7 years across communities. Second, the age-gaps that do exist are consistent with the preferences of both men and women—at least during their early to middle reproductive periods. And, lastly, large age-gaps are not negatively associated with measures of fertility or well-being for either sex. Our results underscore the importance of appreciating the cultural context within which behavioral practices with potentially negative consequences are situated.

Experiences of Romantic Attraction Are Similar Across Dating Apps and Offline Dates in Young Adults

This study compared dating experiences through smartphone apps (e.g., Tinder) with offline-initiated dating. Previous research suggests that people feel greater apprehensiveness toward internet dating relative to traditional dating methods. Using an experience-sampling design (N = 793) over one month, we examined attraction, perceptions of dating partners (sexiness, warmth), and behaviors (sexual intercourse, alcohol) across dating modalities, and alongside trait sociosexuality, destiny/growth beliefs, romanticism, and gender. Results showed that participants reported experiences were similar for offline and app-initiated dates, except for those high in destiny/growth or romantic beliefs, who tended to feel less attraction to dating partners. Despite this similarity, participants viewed dating apps negatively. We also found little support for ideal partner preferences correlating with attraction or dating outcomes. We suggest that initial beliefs about dating may bias people away from dating app experiences, and personality traits such as romantic beliefs may dictate outcomes much more than the method of meeting.

Hierarchical partner selection shapes rod-cone pathway specificity in the inner retina

SummaryNeurons form stereotyped microcircuits that underlie specific functions. In the vertebrate retina, the primary rod and cone pathways that convey dim and bright light signals, respectively, exhibit distinct wiring patterns. Rod and cone pathways are thought to be assembled separately during development. However, using correlative fluorescence imaging and serial electron microscopy, we show here that cross-pathway interactions are involved to achieve pathway-specific connectivity within the inner retina. We found that A17 amacrine cells, a rod pathway-specific cellular component, heavily bias their synaptogenesis with rod bipolar cells (RBCs) but increase their connectivity with cone bipolar cells (CBCs) when RBCs are largely ablated. This cross-pathway synaptic plasticity occurs during synaptogenesis and is triggered even on partial loss of RBCs. Thus, A17 cells adopt a hierarchical approach in selecting postsynaptic partners from functionally distinct pathways (RBC>CBC), in which contact and/or synaptogenesis with preferred partners (RBCs) influences connectivity with less-preferred partners (CBCs).

Femme/Butch/Androgyne Identity and Preferences for Femininity Across Face, Voice, and Personality Traits in Chinese Lesbian and Bisexual Women.

Studies indicate that individuals preferring masculinity/femininity in one domain also prefer it in other domains. Heterosexual men and women and gay men have reported consistent preferences for masculinity/femininity across the faces and voices of their preferred sex. This study explored the femininity preferences of 417 Chinese lesbian and bisexual women in terms of face, voice pitch, vocal tract length, and personality traits and explored the effect of sexual self-labels (femme, butch, and androgyne) on these preferences. We found that lesbian and bisexual women showed a stronger preference for feminized faces, voice pitch, vocal tract length, and personality traits than masculinized versions, and these preferences were highly consistent across the four domains. Moreover, femininity preference was moderated by sexual self-labels, with butches preferring more feminine voice pitch, vocal tract length, and personality traits than femmes and androgynes. However, no significant difference was found for facial femininity preferences among different sexual self-labels. These findings present evidence of consistent femininity preference across visual, auditory, and personality traits and suggest that, regardless of sexual orientation, multiple cues may be used together when determining the attractiveness of individuals. Furthermore, these results support the hypothesis that the partner preference of lesbian and bisexual women mirrors that of heterosexual men.

Developmental differences in amygdala projection neuron activation associated with isolation-driven changes in social preference.

Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by brain maturation and changes in social engagement. Changes in the social environment influence social behaviors. Memories of social events, including remembering familiar individuals, require social engagement during encoding. Therefore, existing differences in adult and adolescent social repertoires and environmentally-driven changes in social behavior may impact novel partner preference, associated with social recognition. Several amygdala subregions are sensitive to the social environment and can influence social behavior, which is crucial for novelty preference. Amygdala neurons project to the septum and nucleus accumbens (NAc), which are linked to social engagement. Here, we investigated how the social environment impacts age-specific social behaviors during social encoding and its subsequent impact on partner preference. We then examined changes in amygdala-septal and -NAc circuits that accompany these changes. Brief isolation can drive social behavior in both adults and adolescents and was used to increase social engagement during encoding. We found that brief isolation facilitates social interaction in adolescents and adults, and analysis across time revealed that partner discrimination was intact in all groups, but there was a shift in preference within isolated and non-isolated groups. We found that this same isolation preferentially increases basal amygdala (BA) activity relative to other amygdala subregions in adults, but activity among amygdala subregions was similar in adolescents, even when considering conditions (no isolation, isolation). Further, we identify isolation-driven increases in BA-NAc and BA-septal circuits in both adults and adolescents. Together, these results provide evidence for changes in neuronal populations within amygdala subregions and their projections that are sensitive to the social environment that may influence the pattern of social interaction within briefly isolated groups during development.

Sexual experience increases oxytocin, but not vasopressin, receptor densities in the medial preoptic area, ventromedial hypothalamus, and central amygdala of male rats

Oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (VP) are considered to be principal neurochemical substrates of bonding in monogamous species. We have reported previously that conditioning of a sexual partner preference in male rats resulted in conditioned activation of OT and VP neurons in hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptc nuclei. Here we asked whether such conditioning would also alter OT or VP receptor densities. Sexually naïve male rats were assigned to one of three groups (n = 15/group). The Paired group received 9 copulatory training trials with sexually receptive females scented with a neutral almond odor. The Unpaired group received 9 copulatory training trials with unscented sexually receptive females. The Naïve group were not given sexual experience. Paired and Unpaired males were given a final test in an open field with two receptive females, one scented and the other unscented, to assess the development of conditioned ejaculatory preference (CEP), which was expressed significantly in the Paired group. Brains from rats in the three groups were then assessed for OT receptor (OTR) or VP1a receptor (VPR) densities within cortical, limbic and hypothalamic structures using autoradiography with selective 125I-labeled receptor ligands. Sexual experience alone increased OTR significantly in the medial preoptic area (mPOA), ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), and central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) in both Paired- and Unpaired-trained males compared to sexually Naïve males. No differences were found for experience on VPR densities in any region. These data add to a growing body of evidence that sexual experience alters brain function and processing of sex-related cues, and suggest that enhanced activation of OTRs in the mPOA, VMH, and CeA by conditioned OT release in those regions may underlie CEP in the male rat.

Clomiphene citrate treatment during perinatal development alters adult partner preference, mating behaviour and androgen receptor and vasopressin in the male mandarin vole Microtus mandarinus.

During development, many aspects of behaviour, including partner preferences and sexual behaviour, are "organized" by neural aromatization of androgen and oestrogen. This study aimed to analyse these processes in the mandarin vole (Microtus mandarinus); this is a novel mammalian model exhibiting strong monogamous pair bonds. Male pups were treated daily with a sesame oil only (MC) or the oestrogen receptor blocker-clomiphene citrate sesame oil mixture (MT) from prenatal day 14 to postnatal day 10. Female pups were treated daily with sesame oil only (FC). Partner preferences, sexual behaviour, and the expression of androgen receptor (AR) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) were examined when animals were 3months old. The MT and FC groups exhibited male-directed partner preferences and feminized behaviour. AR-immunoreactive neurons (AR-IRs) in the medial preoptic area (mPOA), bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST), and medial amygdaloid nucleus (MeA) were reduced in MT males compared to MC males, and there was no significant difference in the number of AR-IRs between MT males and FC females. AVP-immunoreactive neurons (AVP-IRs) in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON) were reduced in MT males compared to MC males, and there were no significant differences in the number of AVP-IRs between MT males and FC females. The results indicate a significant role of hormone signalling in the development of male mate preference in the novel monogamous mammal model.

United clubs of Europe: Informal differentiation and the social ordering of intra-EU diplomacy

This article makes the case for integrating informal, social and minilateral dynamics in analyses of ‘differentiated integration’ in the European Union (EU) context. In EU studies, differentiated integration has mainly served as an analytical lens for studying variation in states’ degree of formalized commitment to the European integration project or in organizational decision-making procedures across policy areas. While this focus has generated important analytical and empirical insights, three dimensions tend to be lost when limiting the study of differentiated integration to negotiated outcomes manifest in legal documents and decision-making procedures. First, informal processes of integration precede and concur with formal ones. Second, European integration is an inherently social process, and member states integrate with the EU identity-building project in different ways and to different degrees. Third, member states enjoy heterogeneous social ties with one another, routinely forming informal bi- and minilateral coalitions in everyday decision-shaping processes. More knowledge about these informal and social dynamics can give us a better understanding of how differentiated integration manifests itself in practice and where the European integration process is heading. The theoretical argument is buttressed by data from the 2020 European Council of Foreign Relations’ ‘Coalition Explorer’ survey, showing how partner preferences within the EU continue to reflect stable social sub-orders.

Behavioral, Neural, and Molecular Mechanisms of Conditioned Mate Preference: The Role of Opioids and First Experiences of Sexual Reward.

Although mechanisms of mate preference are thought to be relatively hard-wired, experience with appetitive and consummatory sexual reward has been shown to condition preferences for partner related cues and even objects that predict sexual reward. Here, we reviewed evidence from laboratory species and humans on sexually conditioned place, partner, and ejaculatory preferences in males and females, as well as the neurochemical, molecular, and epigenetic mechanisms putatively responsible. From a comprehensive review of the available data, we concluded that opioid transmission at μ opioid receptors forms the basis of sexual pleasure and reward, which then sensitizes dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin systems responsible for attention, arousal, and bonding, leading to cortical activation that creates awareness of attraction and desire. First experiences with sexual reward states follow a pattern of sexual imprinting, during which partner- and/or object-related cues become crystallized by conditioning into idiosyncratic “types” that are found sexually attractive and arousing. These mechanisms tie reward and reproduction together, blending proximate and ultimate causality in the maintenance of variability within a species.

Female sexual behavior is disrupted in a preclinical mouse model of PCOS via an attenuated hypothalamic nitric oxide pathway

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) frequently experience decreased sexual arousal, desire, and sexual satisfaction. While the hypothalamus is known to regulate sexual behavior, the specific neuronal pathways affected in patients with PCOS are not known. To dissect the underlying neural circuitry, we capitalized on a robust preclinical animal model that reliably recapitulates all cardinal PCOS features. We discovered that female mice prenatally treated with anti-Müllerian hormone (PAMH) display impaired sexual behavior and sexual partner preference over the reproductive age. Blunted female sexual behavior was associated with increased sexual rejection and independent of sex steroid hormone status. Structurally, sexual dysfunction was associated with a substantial loss of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)-expressing neurons in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) and other areas of hypothalamic nuclei involved in social behaviors. Using invivo chemogenetic manipulation, we show that nNOSVMH neurons are required for the display of normal sexual behavior in female mice and that pharmacological replenishment of nitric oxide restores normal sexual performance in PAMH mice. Our data provide a framework to investigate facets of hypothalamic nNOS neuron biology with implications for sexual disturbances in PCOS.

Physical disability in romantic partner: Behavioral immune system theory fails to explain why women and men differ in their perceptions of potential romantic partners who are physically disabled

The research on mate choice has neglected preference for romantic partners of physically disabled individuals. In the present study we tested attractiveness evaluation of disabled individuals in a romantic context. Additionally, and according to the disease-avoidance mechanism proposed by behavioral immune system theory, individual differences in disgust sensitivity should result in prejudicial and negative responses against individuals with physical disabilities. This experimental study is the first to put this hypothesis to the test. Participants were presented with visual stimuli differing as a function of physical disability and were asked to rate them for attractiveness as a romantic partner. The results showed that women rate physically disabled men as more attractive as romantic partners than nondisabled men, while men rated physically disabled women less attractive as romantic partners than physically nondisabled women. Neither the perceived vulnerability to disease subscales nor pathogen and sexual disgust were associated with ratings of attractiveness of the disabled opposite sex as a romantic partner. These findings are inconsistent with the proposed association of disgust sensitivity and prejudicial attitudes towards physically disabled individuals; and they suggest, for the first time, that the perceptual effects of romantic attraction are different from those of general attraction for men but not women.

Unpredictable love? How uncertainty influences partner preferences

AbstractDo uncertain events (such as COVID‐19) influence the types of partners that males and females feel attracted to in (online) dating? Four studies show that partner preferences are not fixed but dynamic and depend on people's temporary psychological state of uncertainty. Specifically, we show that when facing uncertainty, women are more attracted to men with tougher versus more tender facial features, whereas men are more attracted to women with more tender versus tougher facial features. This effect attenuates under certainty. We show furthermore that uncertainty (but not certainty) increases the preference of stereotypical partner types (caring vs. strong), which can be inferred from these facial features. These results are replicated with different facial stimuli and when uncertainty is activated due to COVID‐19, pointing to the timeliness and generalizability of the findings. These findings have implications for our understanding of how and why partner preferences are influenced by uncertainty.

RESEARCH ON THE REGULATION OF MULTI-AGENT'S EMOTION BASED ON MULTI-AGENT'S HETEROGENEOUS GAME PREFERENCE AND BILATERAL PARTNER'S PREFERENCE

Abstract Background The development of virtual enterprise is inseparable from the support of partners. Due to information asymmetry, the choice of virtual enterprise partners is blind, and simple matching formula is difficult to meet. At the same time, the psychology of the matching subject is based on the maximization of its own interests rather than the maximization of collective interests. There are interest contradictions and conflicts between subjects, and they may eventually fall into a “prisoner's dilemma”. Therefore, how to carry out the research on emotion regulation based on multi-agent heterogeneous game preference and bilateral partner preference is very important. Research Objects and Methods Aiming at the contradictions and interest conflicts between subjects in the process of virtual enterprise partner matching, combined with the basic characteristics of subject language preference evaluation, the game idea is introduced into the process of virtual enterprise partner bilateral matching analysis, a bilateral matching game model of heterogeneous multi-attribute preference and subjects' psychological behavior is proposed, and the influence of the changes of subjects' psychological behavior on the evolution law of bilateral matching game system is analyzed, The Nash equilibrium strategy of bilateral matching is discussed. In order to verify the impact of the algorithm on emotion, this study uses relevant scales to investigate. (1) Positive emotion scale. The Panas emotion scale developed by Watson et al. Is widely used to measure emotion. The scale includes two dimensions: positive emotion and negative emotion. There are 6 questions in this dimension, and Likert scores 5 points (1 means “very inconsistent”, 5 means “very consistent”, the same below). The Cronbach coefficient of this questionnaire is 0.90. (2) Motivation. The problem of measuring motivation is mainly the motivation scale compiled by Phan, which has 8 questions and is scored with Likert 5 points. (3) Social support scale. The scale is adapted from the social support scale compiled by Ye Yuemei et al. It has eight questions, using Likert's five points scoring method. Clonbach α the coefficient of the scale is 0.87. (4) Behavioral propensity scale. Propensity dimension in intention measurement. The scale has 6 questions, and Likert scores 5 points. The clonbach coefficient of the scale is 0.95. Results The results of case analysis show that the model can make full use of the multi-attribute preference information of heterogeneous subjects, describe the mechanism of psychological behavior affecting the evolution of game system, and help virtual enterprises match business partners; This has important value and significance for the establishment of virtual enterprises and their industrial agglomeration effect. In the influence process of cooperative anxiety, emotional response plays an intermediary role, psychological elasticity plays a regulatory role, and emotional response to life events plays an intermediary role. That is, the higher the psychological elasticity, the higher the excessive coping style of the game, and vice versa. Conclusion Various stable matching solutions can be obtained by solving the model, and the conclusion is more suitable for the matching decision-making process of both parties in the actual process, which makes the model can be applied to various scenarios, such as the selection of battery suppliers of new energy vehicles and smart phone screen suppliers, which has greater practical value and significance. It should be pointed out that there are some deficiencies in the setting conditions of the model method, mainly because some individuals in the group cooperate to form an alliance, so as to form a community of interests. In the process of game, the individual experience in the group is constrained by more conditions, which makes the results of the model deviate. Acknowledgements Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation (No. LQ20G010005), Zhejiang Provincial Statistical Science Research Project (NO. 21TJQN15) and Natural Science Fund Project of Huzhou City (No. 2018YZ13)

Enhancing primary Care: development of a Training for primary care nurses in heart failure Education

Abstract Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: Foundation. Main funding source(s): King Baudouin Foundation Belgium Background, Self-care in Heart Failure (HF) is important to prevent rehospitalisation and to improve Quality of Life (QoL).1, 2 Therefore, it is necessary that HF-patients receive continuous education and self-care support, both in the hospital as at home.3 In Belgium, multidisciplinary (Mdisc-) HF-programmes are not yet broadly implemented, nor does a national HF-DMP exists. Specialist HF-nurses are not readily available and GPs report that they do not have time for patient education . 4,5 GPs identified trained primary care nurses (PCN) as their preferred partner to take on patient education and self-care support.5 However, currently, these nurses are not trained to take on this role.5 Purpose To develop an evidence-based HF-educator training for primary care nurses. Methods The training was developed in 10 consecutive steps: Step 1, a working group with representatives of Belgian HF-cardiologists, HF-nurses, PCN and the nursing department of a university of applied sciences was established. Step 2, in preparation of this working group, M., a PCN and primary care HF-nurse, reviewed the curriculum of the specialist HF-nurse training to identify the (non-) relevant topics for PCN training. She presented her findings during working group 1 in which we decided to consult the primary health care professionals. Step 3, one group interview with PCN, one interview with a GP and a diabetes educator took place. A short interview guide was developed. The main conclusions were that PCN have limited awareness for HF, it should be a short in time training, psychosocial aspects are very important, PCN should be able to detect signs and symptoms of HF, a basic module on HF must be included. Step 4, presentation of these results to the working group. Step 5, development of an organisational framework Step 6, a subgroup consisting of one specialist HF-nurse, one HF-educator- and HF-nurse in primary care developed a programme based on the results of the interviews, the HFA-curriculum and the organisational framework. Step 7, this programme was presented to and approved by the working group Step 8, representatives of the university of applied sciences will implement the programme as part of their life-long learning programme. Step 9 and 10: pilot and evaluation. Results The PCN HF-educator education will take 20h in 3 consecutive weeks. Participants will receive a theoretical introduction in HF followed by intensive practical training on patient-education, self-care and psychosocial support. In March 2022 the first pilot will take place. Conclusions Continuous education is important to support patients in their self-care and self-management. Therefore, it is necessary to train and support primary health care professionals in order to prepare them for this tasks. We presented a co-creative methodology to develop and implement a training for health care professionals.

Covert signaling is an adaptive communication strategy in diverse populations.

Identity signals are those common components of communication transmissions that inform receivers of the signaler's membership in a categorizable subset of individuals. Such signals may be overt, broadcast to all possible receivers, or covert, encrypted so that only similar receivers are likely to perceive their identity-relevant meaning. Here we present an instrumental theory of covert signaling, based on the function of identity signals in social assortment. We argue that covert signaling is favored when signalers are generous toward strangers, when costs of being discovered as dissimilar are high, and when the ability to assort only with preferred partners is restricted. We further argue that covert signaling should be more common among members of "invisible" minorities, who are less likely to encounter similar individuals by chance. We formalize this theory with an evolutionary model to more rigorously explore the consequences of our assumptions. Our results have implications for our understanding of numerous aspects of social life, including communication, cooperation, social identity, humor, pragmatics, politics, hate speech, and the maintenance of diversity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).