Particulate Steroids Research Articles

Pain Reduction and Repeat Injections After Transforaminal Epidural Injection With Particulate Versus Nonparticulate Steroid for the Treatment of Chronic Painful Lumbosacral Radiculopathy

BackgroundThe corticosteroid choice for a lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injection (TFESI) remains controversial. Whether to utilize particulate or nonparticulate steroid preparations for these injections remains an unanswered question in the literature. ObjectiveTo determine if a particulate or nonparticulate steroid is more effective in the treatment of electromyography (EMG)-confirmed lumbosacral radiculopathy. DesignMulticenter retrospective cohort study. SettingTwo tertiary academic spine centers. PatientsConsecutive patients, aged 18 years or older, with EMG-confirmed lumbosacral radiculopathy. InterventionsTFESI with a particulate or nonparticulate steroid to treat radicular pain within 6 months of EMG. Main Outcome MeasuresThe primary outcome was the proportion of patients with ≥50% pain reduction on the numerical rating scale after TFESI. Secondary outcomes included mean numerical rating scale score reduction and number of repeat TFESIs. Short-term (<30 days) and intermediate (≥30 days) outcomes were compared between patients who received a TFESI with a particulate versus nonparticulate steroid. ResultsSeventy-eight patients, with an age ± standard deviation of 56 ± 16 years and a mean symptom duration of 49 ± 71 months, were included. Forty-one patients (52%) received dexamethasone, 23 (30%) received triamcinolone, and 14 (18%) received betamethasone. There was no statistically significant difference in the proportion of patients who reported ≥50% pain reduction between the particulate and nonparticulate groups at short-term follow-up (35%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 21-51 versus 28%; 95% CI, 13-43) or at intermediate follow-up (40%; 95% CI, 21-59 versus 39%; 95% CI, 19-59). There was no difference in the mean number of injections administered between groups at intermediate follow-up (P = .26). ConclusionsThis study demonstrates no significant differences in pain reduction or the number of repeat injections with particulate compared with nonparticulate transforaminal epidural steroid injection in patients with EMG-confirmed painful lumbosacral radiculopathy. These findings suggest a new population for whom nonparticulate steroid appears to be an appropriate first-line therapy, although confirmation with a randomized study is needed. Level of EvidenceIII

Therapeutic efficacy of particulate versus non-particulate steroids for cervical and lumbar radiculopathy

Therapeutic efficacy of particulate versus non-particulate steroids for cervical and lumbar radiculopathy

Percutaneous Epidural Adhesiolysis with Epidural Steroid Injection: A Non-inferiority Test of Non-particulate Steroids Versus Particulate Steroids.

To evaluate the efficacy of dexamethasone sodium phosphate (DSP), a non-particulate steroid, during percutaneous epidural adhesiolysis (PEA), as compared with triamcinolone acetate (TA). Retrospective observational study. Interventional pain management clinic in a tertiary care center. Patients scheduled to receive PEA between March 2011 and January 2014. 47 patients underwent the procedure with TA (TA group), and 26 patients underwent the procedure with DSP (DSP group). At the end of the procedure, 20 ml of 0.18% ropivacaine containing 3000 units of hyaluronidase and 80 mg of TA or 10 mg of DSP was injected. Success rates and means of percent decreases in terms of verbal numerical rating scale (VNRS) of pain and Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) at follow-up visits 3 and 6 months after PEA were compared. Non-inferiority test was used for statistical analysis. At 3 months, the success rate in VNRS of TA group and DSP group were 59.6% and 53.8%. The mean percent decreases of VNRS were 42.4% and 46.1% in TA group and DSP group, respectively. At this time point, non-inferiority was not demonstrated. In contrast at 6 months, the success rate in aspect of VNRS was 45.2% in TA group and 62.5% in DSP group. The mean of percent decreases in the VNRS was 34.9% in TA group and 52.8% in DSP group. The non-inferiority was met in two measurements. DSP presents non-inferiority to TA in terms of success rate and percentage decrease of the VNRS 6 months after PEA.

Particulate and non-particulate steroids in spinal epidurals: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Steroids in transforaminal epidural injections are widely used to ease radicular pain in both cervical and lumbar radiculopathy. Concerns have been articulated about the use of particulate steroids for this intervention, as a number of case reports have been published linking them with post procedural paralysis, possibly due to spinal ischaemia secondary to a steroid particulate embolism. Non-particulate, or soluble steroids, are mooted as an alternative; however, their effectiveness relative to particulate steroids has not been conclusively proven. We review the evidence in the published literature regarding the efficacy of non-particulate steroids in epidural injections compared to particulate steroids, and synthesise it to gauge the qualitative outcomes from level one evidence (visual analogue scales, numerical pain scores and Oswestry Disability Index) from baseline to specified follow up. The PRISMA guidelines were utilised for this review. An internet search was performed to collate the available literature from medical databases PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and the Cochrane library. We used a broad search term [epidural (and) steroid] to ensure a wide capture of articles. No limitations in terms of language or date of publication were implemented. The reference lists of articles included for full text review were searched for any additional primary or review publications. Four online libraries were searched, with a combined total of 11,353 titles reviewed, not excluding duplicates. Post title abstract and full text review, nine articles were identified as suitable for inclusion for qualitative synthesis. Four of these were suitable for quantitative synthesis, with a total of 300 participants, 147 in the particulate group and 153 in the non-particulate group. Using a random effects model, the pooled standard mean difference of VAS score diminution was not significant between groups (0.31 in favour of particulates, 95% CI -0.68 to 1.30). From our qualitative synthesis, there was a trend for greater improvement in pain scores within the particulate group. The type of steroid used did not appear to have an effect on the disability score given by patients. Particulate steroids are not demonstrably better in relieving pain compared to their non-particulate counterparts. In view of the concerns over the safety profile of particulate steroids, it may be prudent to switch to non particulates, or at the very least the dangers and alternatives should be flagged with the patient group as part of a shared decision making process.

Deleterious Effects of Intra-arterial Administration of Particulate Steroids on Microvascular Perfusion in a Mouse Model

Purpose To determine the in vivo effects of several particulate steroids on microvascular perfusion by using intravital microscopy in a mice model and to investigate the in vitro interactions between these particulate steroids and red blood cells (RBCs). Materials and Methods The study was conducted in agreement with the guidelines of the National Committee of Ethic Reflection on Animal Experimentation. By using intravital microscopy of mouse cremaster muscle, the in vivo effects of several particulate steroids on microvascular perfusion were assessed. Four to five mice were allocated to each of the following treatment groups: saline solution, dexamethasone sodium phosphate, a nonparticulate steroid, and the particulate steroids cortivazol, methylprednisolone, triamcinolone, and prednisolone. By using in vitro blood microcinematography and electron microscopy, the interactions between these steroids and human RBCs were studied. All results were analyzed by using nonparametric tests. Results With prednisolone, methylprednisolone, or triamcinolone, blood flow was rapidly and completely stopped in all the arterioles and venules (median RBC velocity in first-order arterioles, 5 minutes after administration was zero for these three groups) compared with a limited effect in mice treated with saline, dexamethasone, and cortivazol (20.3, 21.3, and 27.5 mm/sec, respectively; P < .003). This effect was associated with a large decrease in the functional capillary density (4.21, 0, and 0 capillaries per millimeter for methylprednisolone, triamcinolone, or prednisolone, respectively, vs 21.0, 21.4, and 19.1 capillaries per millimeter in mice treated with saline, dexamethasone, and cortivazol, respectively; P < .003). This was because of the rapid formation of RBC aggregates. However, no change in microvascular perfusion was associated with administration of cortivazol or dexamethasone. In vitro experiments confirmed the formation of RBC aggregates associated with the transformation of RBCs into spiculated RBCs with the same steroids. Conclusion Several particulate steroids have an immediate and massive effect on microvascular perfusion because of formation of RBC aggregates associated with the transformation of RBCs into spiculated RBCs. (©) RSNA, 2016 Online supplemental material is available for this article.

Human Serum Modifies Aggregation Properties of Commonly Used Epidural Steroids

Background: Case reports of catastrophic neurological sequelae during ESIs have questioned the safety of this procedure. A proposed mechanism is particulate steroid embolization resulting in neuralischemia. Previous reports have described steroid clumping in common epidural injection mixtures. We demonstrate that physiologic medium can also modify aggregation. Objective: To inspect and compare aggregative properties of steroid preparations with and without human serum. Setting: Academic tertiary care center. Hypothesis: Particulate steroids display different aggregation characteristics in serum compared to non-physiologic solutions. Design: Solutions were inspected under light microscopy: betamethasone sodium phosphate/ betamethasone acetate, methylprednisolone, and dexamethasone were each mixed in lidocaine 1%, bupivacaine 0.5%, or sterile water in a 1:1 ratio. All preparations were inspected under light microscopy with 100x and 400x magnifications by a pathologist blinded to our expectations and hypothesis. Five random viewing fields were selected within each slide and the number of aggregates per field and the number of particles per aggregate was evaluated. Results: The addition of serum had a significant effect on steroid particle aggregation and number of particles per aggregate. Limitations: This study was limited by sample size as only 2 sets of human serum samples were tested with each preparation against one non-serum control. Additionally, as steroid preparations were evaluated under light microscopy, the ex vivo setting must be considered in the interpretation of results. Finally, mixing preparations with human serum as opposed to whole blood was necessary to allow for improved visibility on light microscopy despite the fact that whole blood may be necessary to more closely emulate in vivo coagulation setting. Conclusions: Overall, the presence of serum resulted in fewer large steroid particle aggregates when compared to non-serum control samples. Amongst particulate steroids, betamethasone with bupivacaine 0.5% demonstrated the fewest and smallest particle aggregates, suggesting that preparation may reduce the risk of embolic infarction. Methylprednisolone formed significantly larger particles in bupivicaine 0.5% with serum compared to non-serum controls. Key words: Corticosteroid, particulate aggregate, epidural injection, embolic infarction, serum

Effect of High-Volume Injectate in Lumbar Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections: A Randomized, Active Control Trial

Background: There have been many studies proving the effectiveness of lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injections (TFESIs) for the treatment of radicular pain. Dexamethasone has been suggested as an alternative to particulate steroids. However, no controlled trials have investigated the effect of different injected volumes for a same dose of dexamethasone. Objective: To compare the effects of a high-volume injectate with those of a low-volume injectate using the same dose of dexamethasone for 2 groups in lumbar TFESI. Study Design: A prospective, randomized, active control trial. Setting: The outpatient clinic of a single academic medical center. Methods: A total of 66 patients were randomized to receive lumbar transforaminal epidural dexamethasone injections with either a low-volume injectate (3mL, N = 30) or a high-volume injectate (8mL, N = 32). The primary outcome measures for this study were the incidence of the patients achieving meaningful pain relief and a reduction on the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS, range 0 – 100) at 4 weeks after the procedure. The definition of “meaningful pain relief” was ≥ 50% from baseline. The secondary outcomes included the Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ, range 0 – 24) score and adverse effects. The outcomes were assessed 4 weeks after the procedure. Results: Four weeks after the procedure, in the DL8 group, the incidence of achieving meaningful pain relief was higher compared with DL3 group (19, 59.4% vs. 9, 30%, P = 0.024). Both groups demonstrated a significant improvement in their VAS and RMDQ scores (P &lt; 0.05). The VAS of the high-volume injectate group (DL8) was significantly lower than that of the low-volume injectate group (DL3) (33.3 ± 25 vs. 46.3 ± 25, P = 0.036). There was no significant difference in the RMDQ score between the 2 groups. Limitations: We enrolled a small number of patients and did not assess the long-term outcomes. Conclusions: Injectate at a volume of 8 mL was more effective than injectate at a volume of 3 mL for radicular pain in a lumbar transforaminal steroid injection, although both of the injectates contained the same dose of dexamethasone. Key words: Dexamethasone, disc herniation, epidural injection, lumbar, radiculopathy

Contrast Dispersion Pattern and Efficacy of Corticosteroid at the Glenohumeral Joint in Adhesive Capsulitis

Background: Corticosteroid injection has a wide range of success in adhesive capsulitis but the reason for this has not yet been explained. We hypothesized that this difference might be due to the distribution of the corticosteroids injected into the joint cavity because particulate steroid deposits in the capsule and will not be moved over time by shoulder motion. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to determine whether the therapeutic efficacy of particulate corticosteroid injection into the glenohumeral joint differs according to the dispersion pattern. Study Design: Prospective evaluation. Setting: Outpatient clinics at a tertiary university hospital Methods: Seventy-two patients diagnosed as having adhesive capsulitis received a corticosteroid injection at the glenohumeral joint. The posterior capsule and the subscapular bursa were selected as dispersion sites and the dispersion of contrast dye was expressed as a ratio (%). Two weeks and 3 months after the injection clinical improvement (“not improved,” “slightly improved,” “much improved”), numeric rating scale (NRS), and passive range of motions (PROM) were evaluated. The dispersion of the contrast dye was compared according to the clinical improvements by an analysis of variance test. Pearson correlation test was done to find the relationship between PROM and the dispersion and between change of NRS and the dispersion. Results: The distribution in the subscapular area was 30.0% in the “much improved” group, 22.0% in the “slightly improved” group, and 37.1% in the “no improvement” group which was not significantly different (P = 0.179). Correlations between changes of NRS and the dye distribution were not statistically significant (P = 0.429 at 2 weeks and P = 0.629 at 3 months). The change of passive external rotation 3 months after the injection was significantly correlated with the dye distribution (P = 0.035). Limitations: Because of diverse pathologic findings in adhesive capsulitis, further studies will be needed to address the effect of the dye distribution on the pain improvement according to pathologic findings revealed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Conclusion: External rotation of the shoulder in adhesive capsulitis has greater improvement as the corticosteroid solutions injected into the glenohumeral joint are increasingly dispersed to the subscapularis area. However, this does not affect the pain improvement after the injection. Key words: Adhesive capsulitis, dispersion, contrast dye, subscapularis, glenohumeral joint, corticosteroid, range of motion, numeric rating scale

Whitacre Needle Reduces the Incidence of Intravascular Uptake in Lumbar Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections

Background: Transforaminal epidural steroid injection (TFESI) is a commonly used interventional pain management procedures to treat radicular leg pain. Although most reported complications of TFESI are minor, serious morbidity has also been demonstrated including spinal cord infarction, paraplegia, and quadriparesis. Suggested mechanisms include direct vascular injury or intravascular injection of particulate steroid. Objective: We compared 2 different needle types, Whitacre and Quincke type needles, with regard to intravascular injection rate with total procedure time and the amount of radiation during lumbar TFESI. Study Design: Prospective, randomized trial. Setting: An interventional pain management practice in South Korea. Methods: After Institutional Review Board approval, 149 patients undergoing lumbar TFESI for radicular leg pain were randomly assigned to one of 2 needle groups (Whitacre needle or Quincke type needle). After final confirmation of intravascular injection with digital subtraction angiography, total procedure time and amount of radiation exposure during TFESI were measured. Results: The overall incidence of intravascular injection was 10.4% (28/269). We analyzed the overall incidence of intravascular injection according to the 2 different needle types. The incidence of intravascular injection of the Whitacre needle was 5.4% (8/146), whereas the incidence of intravascular injection of the Quincke needle was 16.2% (20/123). Total procedure time and amount of radiation required to complete the TFESI in the Whitacre and Quincke needle groups was 168.4 ± 57.9 (seconds) and 33.4 ± 15.9 (cGy/cm2 ), 131.9 ± 46.0 (seconds) and 33.2 ± 15.8 (cGy/cm2 ), respectively. Limitations: The physician who performed the TFESI was not blinded to the type of needle for detecting intravascular injection. This study was focused on lumbar TFESI, however, most TFESIs are performed at the L4-5 or L5-S1 level. Conclusion: The Whitacre needle had the benefit of reducing the incidence of intravascular injection with minimal differences in technical difficulties and the amount of radiation exposure during lumbar TFESI. Key words: Transforaminal epidural steroid injection, complication, intravascular injection, Whitacre needle, Quincke needle, procedure time, radiation, digital subtraction angiography

Ropivacaine and dexamethasone: a potentially dangerous combination for therapeutic pain injections.

Targeted spinal steroid injections are effective in reducing back pain in selected patient populations and carry a small risk of significant adverse neurological outcomes. Recent recommendations are for the use of non-particulate steroid agents for all spinal injections to reduce the risk of neurovascular embolic adverse events. Many injections have used a combination of local anaesthetic agent with the steroid. At our institutions, we have recently observed interactions between ropivacaine and dexamethasone combinations ascribed to the incompatibility of the former with alkaline solutions, resulting in rapid crystallisation. This study has further investigated the combinations of commonly used local anaesthetic and steroid combinations to determine if such precipitation effects are more widespread. The commonly used local anaesthetics (lignocaine, bupivacaine, ropivacaine) and the non-particulate steroid dexamethasone sodium phosphate combinations were evaluated macroscopically, microscopically, and pH values measured. Where crystallisation was observed the rate of precipitation and crystal size was measured. Contamination of ropivacaine with sodium bicarbonate solution was also evaluated. Particulate size of the particulate steroid agent betamethasone acetate was evaluated as a comparison. All mixtures of ropivacaine and the non-particulate dexamethasone sodium phosphate assessed demonstrated a pH-dependent crystallisation of the solution. No precipitation was demonstrated with the combinations of dexamethasone and lignocaine or bupivacaine. Contamination of ropivacaine with residual sodium bicarbonate in a drawing up needle following air clearing had a precipitation effect. We describe the effect of crystallisation with the combination of ropivacaine and the non-particulate steroid, dexamethasone sodium phosphate, a mixture that has been used in the literature for targeted pain injections. As this may be considered a non-particulate steroid/anaesthetic injectate, this would potentially carry increased risk if inadvertent intravascular injection occurred during a targeted spinal injection, as has been described with particulate steroid agents. This is due to the elevated pH of dexamethasone and the incompatibility of ropivacaine with alkaline solutions.

Neurological complications associated with epidural steroid injections.

Multiple case reports of neurological complications resulting from intraarterial injection of corticosteroids have led the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to issue a warning, requiring label changes, warning of serious neurological events, some resulting in death. The FDA has identified 131 cases of neurological adverse events, including 41 cases of arachnoiditis. A review of the literature reveals an overwhelming proportion of the complications are related to transforaminal epidural injections, of which cervical transforaminal epidural injections constituted the majority of neurological complications. Utilization data of epidural injections in the Medicare population revealed that cervical transforaminal epidural injections constitute only 2.4% of total epidural injections and <5% of all transforaminal epidural injections. Multiple theories have been proposed as the cause of neurological injury including particulate steroid, arterial intimal flaps, arterial dissection, dislodgement of plaque causing embolism, arterial muscle spasm, and embolism of a fresh thrombus following disruption of the intima.

Comment on the Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Hyaluronidase in the Selective Nerve Root Block of Radiculopathy.

Dear Editor, Ko et al. [1] provided valuable information in a double-blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial that assessed the effectiveness of hyaluronidase in selective nerve root block for radiculopathy. They included 126 patients in each group that receiving hyaluronidase or local anesthetic and steroids without hyaluronidase. A transforaminal epidural injection with a particulate steroid, along with hyaluronidase was done. Even though the results were reportedly superior in the hyaluronidase group, the follow-up was short and the proportion of patients with significant improvement was not reported. The authors discussed the adverse consequences of hyaluronidase but did not discuss the adverse consequences of particulate steroids and transforaminal epidural injections [2,3]. Short-term follow-up data are difficult to interpret in spine management. More recently, clinical investigators have ruled out short-term follow-ups as not being decisive, yet have utilized them to show the lack of effectiveness of interventions [4,5]. Consequently, the efficacy and superiority of transforaminal epidural injections continues to be debated [6,7,8]. The authors described that selective nerve root blocks routinely provided short-term relief. They also referenced studies reporting that selective nerve root blocks in patients with herniated intervertebral discs were effective after 2 weeks, but did not have a lasting effect [9,10]. Neither of the cited studies included selective nerve root blocks as part of their trials. Rather they studied interlaminar epidural injections. Thus, the authors may want to look at various issues related to transforaminal epidural injections with its adverse consequences and recent warnings of particulate steroids, alternate techniques, and long-term outcomes of transforaminal epidural injections. It will be interesting to see if hyaluronidase is any more effective than steroids or local anesthetic alone on a long-term basis. If a methodology of at least one year had been utilized, this important research would have had greater strength and value to the medical community.

Is epidural dexamethasone effective in preventing postdural puncture headache?

BackgroundPostdural puncture headache (PDPH) is one of the common complications of spinal anesthesia; it is observed in 1–40% of cases involving spinal anesthesia. It can cause considerable morbidity and 40% of cases may require invasive treatments such as epidural blood patch. With the exception of invasive treatments such as an epidural blood patch, current standard treatment modalities have not proved efficacious. There had been some research done that indicated successful prophylaxis and/or treatment of PDPH by administration of intravenous steroids. Based on those findings, we hypothesize that a direct injection of corticosteroids to the anesthesia puncture site could increase the amount of corticosteroid that accumulates in the puncture site, and will be more effective in decreasing dural inflammation and incidence of PDPH than that of parenteral steroids. We formulated our study to evaluate the effect of dexamethasone directly injected into spinal anesthesia puncture sites. MethodsA total of 268 patients undergoing spinal anesthesia were randomly allocated into two groups; one group received a prophylactic epidural injection of dexamethasone (2 mL, 8 mg) and the other group received 2 mL of normal saline. The incidence and intensity of PDPH and puncture site backache were each measured at 24 hours, 72 hours, and 7 days after spinal anesthesia. The intensity of the headache was graded according to the meningeal headache index. ResultsThe overall incidence of headache during the 7-day period was 5 patients (3.7%) in the control group and 11 patients (8.2%) in the study group, which is not statistically significant (X2 = 2.393 and p = 0.122. The severity of headache also shows no statistical significance (2.2% in cases versus 6% in controls; z = 1.53, p = 0.126). The intensity of headache reported at the 24 hours (z = 0.698; p = 0.485), 72 hours (z = 0.849; p = 0.396), and 7 days (z = 0.008; p = 0.994) was not different. There also was no difference in the incidence of backache in the two groups. ConclusionIn contrast to other studies that showed the efficacy of intravenous dexamethasone in the prevention and treatment of PDPH, our study did not show any significant effect of prophylactic epidural injection of dexamethasone in prevention of PDPH. However regarding the low number of PDPH in routine cases, evaluation of this intervention in groups with a high incidence of PDPH by using of particulate steroids is recommended to confirm these preliminary findings.

Particulate and Non-Particulate Steroids in Lumbar Transforaminal Epidural Injections

Dear Editor, We welcome the efforts of El-Yahchouchi et al. [1] on undertaking a retrospective study of a large patient cohort to address the important issue of comparison of efficacy of particulate (triamcinolone and betamethasone) and nonparticulate (dexamethasone) lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injections (TFESI). The authors conclude that lumbar TFESI of dexamethasone is noninferior to betamethasone and triamcinolone for treatment of radicular pain and that dexamethasone is superior to triamcinolone and betamethasone with regard to pain and functional outcome at 2 months. However, we have several questions regarding their methodology and conclusions of this article. First, particulate steroids were used in 87% (N = 3,162) of their TFESIs, whereas dexamethasone was used in only 13% (N = 481). This is a considerable difference in sample size between the particulate and nonparticulate groups, and it is reflected in the wider …

Intravascular Flow Detection During Transforaminal Epidural Injections: A Prospective Assessment

Background: Transforaminal epidural steroid injections (TFESI) are a mainstay in the treatment of spine pain. Though this commonly performed procedure is generally felt to be safe, devastating complications following inadvertent intra-arterial injections of particulate steroid have been reported. The use of digital subtraction angiography (DSA) has been suggested as a means of detecting intra-arterial needle placements prior to medication injection. Objective: To examine the efficacy of DSA in detecting intra-arterial needle placements during TFESI. Study Design: Prospective cohort study evaluating the impact of DSA on detecting intra-arterial needle placements during TFESI. Methods: We enrolled 150 consecutive patients presenting to a university-affiliated spine center with discogenic and/or radicular symptoms affecting the cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions. For each injection, prior to imaging with DSA, traditional methods for vascular penetration detection were employed, including the identification of blood in the needle hub (flash), negative aspiration of blood prior to injection, and live fluoroscopic injection of contrast. Once these tests were performed and negative for signs of intra-arterial needle placement, DSA imaging was utilized prior to medication administration for identification of vascular flow. Results: A total number of 222 TFESI were performed, 41 injections at the cervical levels (18.47%), 113 at the lumbar levels (50.9%), and 68 at the sacral levels (30.36%). Flash was observed in 13 injections performed (5.85% of the total number of injections): one (0.45%) in the cervical, 2 (0.9%) in the lumbar, and 10 (4.5%) in the sacral levels. In 11 TFESI blood aspiration was obtained (4.95% of all injections): 3 (1.3%) in cervical, 4 (1.8%) in lumbar, and 4 (1.8%) in sacral injections. Live fluoroscopy during contrast injection detected 46 (20.72%) intravascular flow patterns: 7 (3.1%) cervical, 17 (7.6%) lumbar, and 22 (9.9%) sacral. DSA identified an additional 5 intravascular injections after all previous steps had resulted in negative vascular penetration signs, which accounted for 2.25% of all injections. Limitations: This is a prospective, single-center study with a relatively small number of patients and no control group. Conclusion: DSA detected additional 5.26% intravascular needle placements following traditional methods. Our findings also support other studies that conclude TFESI are generally a safe procedure. We recommend that special attention should be paid to the sacral injections as vascular penetration was statistically higher than at other levels. Key words: Digital subtraction angiography, transforaminal epidural steroid injections

Cervical transforaminal epidural steroid injections: a proposal for optimizing the preprocedural evaluation with available imaging.

Cervical transforaminal epidural steroid injection (CTFESI) has been used to treat cervical radicular pain; however, rare but serious complications such as cerebellar or spinal cord infarction have been reported. The most probable causes of the serious complications include vertebral artery trauma, spasm, or accidental arterial injection of particulate steroid. Several recommendations have been made to improve the safety of CTFESI; however, evaluation and risk assessment of the patient's anatomy by the interventionist have not been sufficiently emphasized. Significant correlations between foraminal narrowing and proximity of the vertebral artery to the target of needle have been reported. This correlation is particularly problematic for interventionists because patients considered or referred for CTFESI are more likely to have foraminal narrowing at the level concerned. Without knowing the patient's anatomy, a common practice of rotating the C-arm obliquely to obtain a full view of the target foramen may carry significant risk of needle's encounter with the vertebral artery. Risk assessment through careful preprocedural review of the patient's magnetic resonance imaging by the interventionist is a worthwhile practice to optimize safety. Special attention should be paid to the vital structures such as the vertebral artery, neural foramen, and carotid artery. A preprocedural roadmap for the safest predicted needle trajectory can be created by simulation using the patient's available magnetic resonance imaging scans. These considerations may guide and help the interventionist to minimize the risk of inadvertent needle placement involving vital structures such as the vertebral artery or carotid artery.

RE: The risks of epidural and transforaminal steroid injections in the spine: Commentary and a comprehensive review of the literature.

Dear Editor, We read with interest the comprehensive literature review and commentary by Dr. Epstein of the risks of epidural and transforaminal steroid injections in the spine.[5] While this manuscript appears to be comprehensive, we are concerned with the lack of evidence in the opinions offered. We disagree with Dr. Epstein's understanding of the literature and makes unusual claims discrediting all interventional techniques even though the title says “epidural and transforaminal steroid injections in the spine.” Further, the author appears to not recognize that transforaminal injections and caudal epidural injections are in facet epidural injections.[8,9] Dr. Epstein has selected all the negative studies and provided seemingly erroneous interpretations of other literature leading to what we believe are best termed inappropriate conclusions. It would appear that her focus may have been on the contaminated epidural steroid injections resulting in meningitis. However, she postulated a multitude of other issues based on incidence of infection from contaminated steroids, projecting that epidural injections are typically short-acting and ineffective over the long-term, exposing patients to major risks and complications, with delay in surgery. Even the very unusually high and unimaginable complications she is describing in these manuscripts of adhesive arachnoiditis of 6-16%, intravascular injections, etc., along with other life-threatening complications are not based on the literature she has reviewed. Even with the extraordinary statements re: Complications in interventional pain procedures, they may well be less when compared with the risks of intraspinous fusion devices in which Dr. Epstein described maximal complication rates of 38%, reoperation rates of 85%, poor outcomes in 77%, along with high costs of the device.[7] Additionally, per Dr. Epstein many operations that are recommended are not necessary or are too complex.[6] The author, in the description of complications and outcomes of interlaminar and transforaminal epidural injections, seems to use the manuscript of facet joint nerve blocks by Manchikanti et al.[20] alleging 11.4% intravascular injury and 76.3% bleeding. This would be a gross misinterpretation of that study. There was no intravascular injury described in this manuscript by Manchikanti et al.,[20] which rather described intravascular entry, unrelated to epidural injections. An assessment of outcomes should describe at least all randomized trials. Instead Dr. Epstein appears to have picked only a few studies with negative results. Based on inadequate utilization of literature, she describes that patients are subject to major life-threatening risks, while delaying potential requisite surgery. Per above, prior reports by Dr. Epstein of surgical complications are enormous.[7] Overall this manuscript would be appropriate for describing the infectious complications based on contaminated steroid injection. Multiple manuscripts in literature[8,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,18,19,21,22,23,24,25,26] have shown equal effectiveness of epidural injections on a long-term basis, along with facet joint nerve blocks, even though that was not the subject of this review, and have shown significant improvement with outcomes of at least 50% pain relief with functional status improvement of 50% over a period of 2 years. A recent systematic review also confirmed these findings.[3] Multiple complications related to transforaminal epidural injections are justifiable;[8,9] however, these complications are related to mainly cervical epidural injections and based on the radicular entry and injection of particulate steroids. The author seems to make multiple statements not substantiated by literature. This trend extended to the clinical effectiveness, complications, and also costs and provides misinterpretations. She quotes Manchikanti et al.[20] as providing a multitude of data, which was not related to this manuscript or to other manuscripts.[17] The author has also made multiple statements regarding financial incentives not described in any of the manuscripts. The author also describes two major types of epidural spinal injections, translaminar and transforaminal; however, there is also a caudal epidural injection. In assessment of the efficacy of epidural injections, one would review all the literature; however, this review is lacking focus on selective literature and using the literature related to the complications in the efficacy. She also described one study by Manchikanti;[14] which was a positive study, and made no comments. Parr et al.[27] is cited in reference to short-term pain relief for disc herniation and radiculitis and evidence was lacking for both short- and long-term treatment from an earlier systematic review published in 2009 rather than using the manuscript published by Benyamin et al.[1] In fact, recent guidelines[8] and multiple systematic reviews[1,2,4,9,28] have provided similar evidence for interlaminar epidural injections, caudal epidural injections, and lumbar transforaminal epidural injections performed in interventional pain management settings under fluoroscopy with proper selection of patients. However, there is no evidence for transforaminal cervical epidural injections. Overall, this manuscript is confusing. It is our opinion that it provides multiple elements of misinformation rather than evidence-based opinions.

The Noninferiority of the Nonparticulate Steroid Dexamethasone vs the Particulate Steroids Betamethasone and Triamcinolone in Lumbar Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections

To assess whether a nonparticulate steroid (dexamethasone, 10 mg) is less clinically effective than the particulate steroids (triamcinolone, 80 mg; betamethasone, 12 mg) in lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injections (TFESIs) in subjects with radicular pain with or without radiculopathy. Retrospective observational study with noninferiority analysis of dexamethasone relative to particulate steroids. Single academic radiology pain management practice. Three thousand six hundred forty-five lumbar TFESIs at the L4-5, L5-S1, or S1 neural foramina, performed on 2,634 subjects. Subjects were assessed with a pain numerical rating scale (NRS, 0-10) and Roland-Morris disability questionnaire (R-M) prior to TFESI, and at 2 weeks and 2 months follow-up. For categorical outcomes, successful pain relief was defined as either ≥50% reduction in NRS or pain 0/10; functional success was defined as ≥40% reduction in R-M score. Noninferiority analysis was performed with δ = -10% as the limit of noninferiority. Continuous outcomes (mean NRS, R-M scores) were analyzed for noninferiority with difference bounds of 0.3 for NRS scores and 1.0 for R-M scores. With categorical outcomes, dexamethasone was demonstrated to be noninferior to the particulate steroids in pain relief and functional improvement at 2 months. Using continuous outcomes, dexamethasone was demonstrated to be superior to the particulate steroids in both pain relief and functional improvement at 2 months. This retrospective observational study reveals no evidence that dexamethasone is less effective than particulate steroids in lumbar TFESIs performed for radicular pain with or without radiculopathy.

A Comparison of Quincke and Whitacre Needles with Respect to Risk of Intravascular Uptake in S1 Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections

Transforaminal epidural steroid injection (TFESI) is a useful treatment modality for pain management. Most complications of TFESI are minor and transient. However, there is a risk of serious complications such as nerve injury, spinal cord infarct, or paraplegia. Some of the risks are related to direct injury to the vessel or intravascular injection of the particulate steroid. We prospectively tested the hypothesis that the intravascular injection rate of the Whitacre needle is lower than that of the Quincke needle during TFESI. This study was a randomized trial of 1376 TFESIs at the S1 level. We collected data of age, gender, height, weight, laterality (right/left), history of lumbosacral spine operation, history of appropriate interval discontinuation of anticoagulation medicines, and underlying disease. During the S1 TFESI, intrasacral bone contact, a blood aspiration test, and real-time fluoroscopy of the intravascular injection using contrast media were investigated. There were no significant differences in the intravascular injection rate with respect to age, gender, height, weight, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, laterality, history of lumbosacral spine operation, or history of appropriate interval discontinuation of anticoagulation medicines. Intravascular injection was significantly associated with a blood aspiration test (P < 0.001), needle tip type (P = 0.002), intrasacral bone contact (P < 0.001), and physicians (some P < 0.05). The use of Quincke needles and intrasacral bone contact increased the rate of intravascular injection. To reduce the risk of intravascular injection, the use of Whitacre needles without intrasacral bone contact may be a safer and more effective approach.

Paraplegia following Thoracic and Lumbar Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections: How Relevant Are Particulate Steroids?

Pain PracticeVolume 14, Issue 4 p. 297-300 Editorial Paraplegia following Thoracic and Lumbar Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections: How Relevant Are Particulate Steroids? Rinoo V. Shah MD MBA, Rinoo V. Shah MD MBA Guthrie Clinic, Horseheads, NY, U.S.ASearch for more papers by this author Rinoo V. Shah MD MBA, Rinoo V. Shah MD MBA Guthrie Clinic, Horseheads, NY, U.S.ASearch for more papers by this author First published: 24 October 2013 https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12110Citations: 17Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume14, Issue4April 2014Pages 297-300 RelatedInformation