Food Particles Research Articles

Interplay between particle size and microbial ecology in the gut microbiome.

Physical particles can serve as critical abiotic factors that structure the ecology of microbial communities. For non-human vertebrate gut microbiomes, fecal particle size (FPS) has been known to be shaped by chewing efficiency and diet. However, little is known about what drives FPS in the human gut. Here, we analyzed FPS by laser diffraction across a total of 76 individuals and found FPS to be strongly individualized. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, a behavioral intervention with 41 volunteers designed to increase chewing efficiency did not impact FPS. Dietary patterns could also not be associated with FPS. Instead, we found evidence that human and mouse gut microbiomes shaped FPS. Fecal samples from germ-free and antibiotic-treated mice exhibited increased FPS relative to colonized mice. In humans, markers of longer transit time were correlated with smaller FPS. Gut microbiota diversity and composition were also associated with FPS. Finally, ex vivo culture experiments using human fecal microbiota from distinct donors showed that differences in microbiota community composition can drive variation in particle size. Together, our results support an ecological model in which the human gut microbiome plays a key role in reducing the size of food particles during digestion. This finding has important implications for our understanding of energy extraction and subsequent uptake in gastrointestinal tract. FPS may therefore be viewed as an informative functional readout, providing new insights into the metabolic state of the gut microbiome.

The potential of a multi-method platform centred on ICP-MS to provide new insights into the size-resolved quantification of TiO2 particles in food

A multi-technique platform for the size-resolved quantification of TiO2 particles in food.

Correct labelling? A full analytical pathway for silica and titania particles in food products

Introducing particles as additives, specifically engineered nanoparticles, in the food industry has improved food properties. Since 2014, alongside the presence of these added particles, there has been a mandatory requirement to disclose if those additives are nanomaterials in the ingredient list of food products. However, detecting and characterizing nanomaterials is time-consuming due to their small sizes, low concentrations, and diverse food matrices.We present a streamlined analytical process to detect the presence of silica and titania particles in food, applicable for food regulation and control. Using X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry for screening enables quick categorization of inorganic particles labeling accuracy, distinguishing products with and without them. For the former, we develop matrix-independent digestion and introduce time-effective statistics to evaluate the median particle size using a reduced number of particles counted, ensuring accurate “nano” labeling.Through the implementation of this work, our objective is to simplify and facilitate verifying the proper labeling of food products.

Evaluation of Clinical Efficacy and Patient Compliance of Interdental Floss as an Adjunct to Toothbrushing for Control of Dental Plaque: A Comparative Study

Abstract Introduction: Good oral hygiene is vital for overall health, and interdental floss is a key tool for maintaining a healthy mouth by removing plaque and food particles from between teeth. However, the success of floss depends on patient compliance, which is crucial for its effectiveness. The aim of this study was to assess the clinical efficacy and patient compliance after dental health education of interdental floss when used alongside toothbrushing for dental plaque control. Materials and Methods: A prospective observational comparative study was conducted, involving 52 participants randomly divided into toothbrush and dental floss (TB + DF) and toothbrush (TB) groups. The participants underwent professional prophylaxis, and interdental floss education was provided to the TB + DF group. Results: Results showed significant differences between the groups at 7 days and 1 month, favoring the floss group in terms of approximal plaque index. However, the toothbrush group exhibited better outcomes for interdental bleeding at 7 days. Patients’ perceptions of cleaning capacity, comfort, and Visual Analog Scale scores were also evaluated. While no significant difference was observed in cleaning capacity perception at 7 days, the floss group showed significantly better results at 1 month. Comfort favored the floss group at both time points. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of dental health education in improving compliance and underscores the efficacy of interdental floss in conjunction with toothbrushing for comprehensive plaque control.

Gastric Tuberculosis Accompanied by Cutaneous Fistula: A Case Report

Gastric Tuberculosis (TB) is a rare presentation. Posterior gastric perforation with tuberculosis complications is extremely unusual. The authors herewith present a case of a 32-year-old male, with complaints of fever for two months and discharge from the left-side of the back for 15 days, through which ingested food particles were drained. The patient was a known case of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) and was recently diagnosed with pulmonary TB. He was evaluated with an upper Gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopic biopsy, Contrast-enhanced Computed Tomography (CECT), and Gastrografin (GGF) studies to confirm the diagnosis. He presumably developed gastric ulceration with posterior perforation, tracking through the retroperitoneum and presenting as a subcostal abscess that was inadvertently incised and converted into a fistula. He was treated both medically and surgically. He recovered completely and discharged with full course of Antitubercular Treatment (ATT) drugs and didactic medications. The presence of a cutaneous fistula in association with gastric TB underscores the diverse clinical presentations of this infectious disease, emphasising the importance of early detection and tailored management approaches.

Construction and characterization of stable multi-species biofilms formed by nine core gut bacteria on wheat fiber.

Microbial aggregation mainly occurs on the intestinal epithelium, mucosal layer and undigested food particles in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Undigested food particles are usually insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), which can be easily obtained through daily diet, but there are few studies investigating whether the gut bacteria adhering to undigested food particles can form multi-species biofilms. In this study, we prepared mono- and multi-species biofilms using 18 core gut bacteria via a dynamic fermentation method, and it was found that multi-species composed of nine core gut bacteria (M9) showed the best biofilm formation ability. Cell counts of the nine bacteria in multi-species biofilms were 9.36, 11.85, 10.17, 9.93, 12.88, 11.39, 10.089, 9.06, and 13.21 Log10 CFU mL-1. M9 was tightly connected and regularly stacked on wheat fiber and had larger particle sizes than mono-species biofilms. M9 retained biofilm formation ability under pH and bile salt stresses. A human feces invasion experiment demonstrated that M9 can stably adhere to wheat fiber under the interference of complex gut bacteria, and the M9 multi-species biofilm had positions that can be filled by various gut bacteria. Metabolome results indicated that the M9 multi-species biofilm had more metabolic productions and more complex interspecies interactions than mono-species biofilms. This study provides a dynamic fermentation method to prepare multi-species biofilms on wheat fiber in vitro. It will also offer a research basis for clarifying whether gut bacteria can utilize IDF to form biofilm structures in vivo and the possible interspecific interactions and physiological functions of bacteria in biofilms.

A hybrid approach to oil structuring - combining wax oleogels and capillary suspensions.

There is continuing interest in finding new approaches to gel liquid oil for processed food applications. Here, we combined oleogels and capillary suspensions to generate model oil-continuous networks consisting of a wax oleogel and a water-bridged, glass particle network. The composition map tested comprised 30 vol% polar or non-polar glass beads dispersed in a 70 vol% non-particle phase consisting of water (≤9 vol%) as well as 2 wt% hexatriacontane as oleogelator in canola oil. While the hexatriacontane wax alone gelled the oil, presence of the glass beads (but no water) prevented oleogelation. Self-supporting capillary networks formed with polar particles and 1 vol% water or non-polar glass beads and 3 vol% water in canola oil. The capillary suspensions demonstrated significant differences in rheological behaviour as the polar particles yielded much higher elastic moduli than their non-polar particle counterparts. Polar hybrids were weakened by inclusion of the wax whereas the non-polar particle hybrid network displayed elastic moduli greater than the respective contributions of both capillary and wax gel networks. This hybrid method of oleogelation can be applied to virtually any food particles and uses minimal water and wax.

Bioavailability and health effects of some carotenoids by different cooking methods

Humans lack the inherent capability to synthesize carotenoids, necessitating their acquisition through dietary sources or supplementation. Among the carotenoids prevalent in our daily nutritional intake are beta-carotene, lycopene, lutein, beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha-carotene, and zeaxanthin. They have antioxidant features thanks to their ability to capture ROS (reactive oxygen species) and free radicals. Particularly beta-carotene, lycopene and lutein are carotenoids with high antioxidant capacity. However, with the effects of factors, such as oxygen, high temperature, light exposure, and pH, they are oxidatively degraded and their bioavailability in the body changes. Among food processing methods, reducing food size and dietary fiber inhibits the absorption of carotenoids by micellization and inactivating pancreatic lipase, while monounsaturated fatty acids have been shown to increase bioavailability and absorption. In vitro studies on various vegetables and fruits with the effect of exogenous factors showed that the addition of oil, increase in lycopene processing, decrease in food particle size, increase in micellization with the breakdown of dietary fibers, and increase in bioavailability as a result of the destruction of cell walls with heat treatment. The addition of olive oil with heat treatment and the factors of decreasing food particle size have positive effects on health by transforming carotenoids into forms with high bioavailability in the body. This review endeavors to investigate the bioavailability of select carotenoids, namely lycopene, beta-carotene, and lutein, in light of various cooking methods and processes, as well as to elucidate their implications for health resulting from heat treatments.

Feeding responses of reef-building corals provide species- and concentration-dependent risk assessment of microplastic

The negative impacts of microplastic on reef-building corals are often attributed to the feeding responses to these particles. Although reactions to and ingestion of microplastic are frequently reported, a quantitative comparison to natural particles and of the factors influencing these responses is largely missing. Thus, this study aims to compare the feeding rates of corals to microplastic and natural particles, considering factors influencing these responses. Specifically, we I) studied the feeding responses of corals to microplastic, natural food, and non-food particles, II) examined the influence of biotic factors (i.e., biofilm on the particles and presence of natural food), III) evaluated species-specific differences in feeding responses to microplastic particles, and IV) applied a toxicodynamic model for species- and concentration-dependent risk assessments. We assessed the feeding responses of 11 coral species, spanning different life-history strategies and growth forms in experimental feeding trials. The results showed that the feeding responses of corals to microplastic differ from those to naturally occurring particles. Reactions to microplastic and natural food occurred equally often, while sand was more frequently rejected. Yet, the ingestion process was much more selective, and microplastic was ingested less frequently than natural food. The presence of a biofilm and natural food had activating effects on the feeding behavior of the corals on microplastic. Generally, coral species that exhibit a higher degree of heterotrophic feeding also reacted more often to microplastic. The species- and concentration-dependent toxicodynamic risk model built on these data reveals that most tested coral species are unlikely to be at risk under present environmental concentration levels. However, highly heterotrophic feeders, such as Blastomussa merleti, or generally vulnerable species, such as Pocillopora verrucosa, need special consideration. These findings help to better evaluate the responses of corals to microplastic and their risk in an increasingly polluted ocean.

Hydraulic engineering of Drusinae larvae: head morphologies and their impact on surrounding flow fields

Body morphologies are significantly different amongst the members of the Drusinae subfamily. Aligned with such differences is the selective niche location chosen by many species from the subfamily. Typically, they live on the sediments of cold, well-oxygenated mountain streams from the Eurasian Region. However, each of the three evolutionary lineages (shredders, grazers and carnivorous filter feeders) inhabit different hydraulic locations according to their foraging behaviour. To investigate the relationship between the body morphology and the flow field near the body, we use Large Eddy Simulations to compute the flow past five different species of the subfamily. We selected species representing the three evolutionary lineages of the subfamily, Drusus alpinus Meyer-Dür 1875 from the shredders clade, D. bosnicus Klapálek 1899 and D. monticola McLachlan 1876 from the grazers clade and Cryptothrix nebulicola McLachlan 1867 and D. discolor (Rambur 1842) from the filter feeders clade. For the simulations, three-dimensional body shapes were reconstructed from X-ray micro CT data and exposed to a turbulent flow corresponding to water-depth and velocity data measured in the field. The total forces acting on each morphotype were found to be comparable. The lift coefficients computed and ranging from 0.07 to 0.17 are smaller than the drag coefficients which were found to range from 0.32 to 0.55. The local distribution of the skin-friction indicates flow-separation zones near the edges of the bodies, in particular, between the head and the pronotum, which are differently located according to each species. Moreover, we observe higher streamwise normal stresses upstream of the head of the filter feeder species. It is hypothesised that the upstream horseshoe vortex can lift up drifting food particles and transport these to the larvae’s filtering legs, thereby enhancing the encounter rates of particles with the filtering devices.

Investigation of Digestion Processes in the Stomach and Duodenum using Computational Fluid Dynamics Model

The stomach and intestines play an important role in homogenizing the contents of the tract, mixing food with enzymes. The study of digestion processes in a fed state remains difficult by experimental methods. Using computational fluid dynamics models it is possible to obtain flow characteristics at any point in the computational domain. At the previous stages of research, we developed a model to describe the flow of a multiphase multicomponent mixture in the antroduodenum, taking into account the processes of mass transfer between phases, biochemical reactions, mass sources and effluents. In this article, we propose an improvement of the model for describing the multiphase flow in the whole stomach and duodenum, taking into account the gas phase. The mathematical formulation of the problem includes the balance equations of mass and momentum for a multiphase medium with mass sources. Boundary conditions take into account the peristalsis of the tract. In numerical experiments we studied the influence of the density of food particles on the distribution of volume fractions of phases, mass fractions of food components and enzymes, pH level in the digestive tract. In the future, it is necessary to continue working with the rheological properties of the flow.

Food acquisition by the intertidal filter feeder bivalve Perumytilus purpuratus: Can the gill explain a differential performance between smaller individuals and the larger ones?

The intertidal zone represents a challenging environment for filter-feeding marine invertebrates. Smaller individuals are more prone to intertidal stressors than their larger conspecific; thus, reaching refuge sizes is crucial for their survival. There is no clear consensus about the morphological adaptations that small filter-feeding individuals may use to compensate for its greater mass-specific metabolic requirement relative to that of a larger conspecific. Food acquisition in filter-feedings is not only determined by the gill size but also by the efficiency of particle retention and transport rate; trade-offs between these variables may explain why smaller individuals are more efficient at acquiring energy. In this study, we examined the mechanisms underlying feeding responses in relation to body size in the intertidal suspension-feeding bivalve Perumytilus purpuratus. Clearance rate, flow rate, particle transport rate, and gill cilia development were compared over a range of sizes (7–35 mm shell length). Our results showed that small individuals possess a gill activity that makes them more efficient at collecting and transporting food particles than their larger conspecifics. Water flow rate, clearance rate, and particle transportation throughout the gill were higher per standardized gill area in smaller than larger individuals. Although the gill filaments are not all fully developed in smaller individuals, the old filaments are functional in capturing and transporting particles, which makes them more efficient per gill area than larger specimens. Taken together, we demonstrated that juveniles of P. purpuratus are more efficient than their adult conspecifics in terms of feeding capacity.

Feeding of planktotrophic squirmers: Effects of mobility and elongation of planktonic particles

Ciliated micro-organisms feed on small planktonic and inorganic particles. Investigating their feeding ability is valuable for understanding corresponding ecodynamics. However, how the feeding ability is affected by the motility and elongation of their food particles remains unknown. In this study, we carry out numerical simulations based on a squirmer model and a point-particle model to represent the ciliated micro-organisms and planktonic particles, respectively. The feeding of the squirmer is accomplished by generating a flow field that attracts particles nearby. This squirmer-induced flow is described by the sum of multiple modes of Legendre polynomials. We adopt a 2-mode model, formed by the first mode and any other one, to investigate the influence of the flow structure on the feeding ability. The latter mode identifies the flow field under the two constraints of the constant maximum surface speed and the fixed vortex size. We find that the dependency of the feeding ability on the flow field varies with the mobility of food particles significantly. For non-motile particles, the feeding ability is little disturbed by the flow mode. While for motile particles, the feeding ability is negatively correlated with the flow mode, which suggests an efficient feeding strategy where the squirmer prioritizes enhancing swimming over attraction to capture more particles. Meanwhile, the elongation of food particles also plays an important role, as more elongated motile particles are more likely to be captured by the flows with high modes. This investigation advances the understanding of feeding on motile and elongated particles.

Testing the effectiveness of different wash protocols to remove body surface contaminants in invertebrate food web studies.

Molecular gut content analysis via diagnostic PCR or high-throughput sequencing (metabarcoding) of consumers allows unravelling of feeding interactions in a wide range of animals. This is of particular advantage for analyzing the diet of small invertebrates living in opaque habitats such as the soil. Due to their small body size, which complicates dissection, microarthropods are subjected to whole-body DNA extraction-step before their gut content is screened for DNA of their food. This poses the problem that body surface contaminants, such as fungal spores may be incorrectly identified as ingested food particles for fungivorous species. We investigated the effectiveness of ten methods for body surface decontamination in litter-dwelling oribatid mites using Steganacarus magnus as model species. Furthermore, we tested for potential adverse effects of the decontamination techniques on the molecular detection of ingested prey organisms. Prior to decontamination, oribatid mites were fed with an oversupply of nematodes (Plectus sp.) and postmortem contaminated with fungal spores (Chaetomium globosum). We used diagnostic PCR with primers specific for C. globosum and Plectus sp. to detect contaminants and prey, respectively. The results suggest that chlorine bleach (sodium hypochloride, NaClO, 5%) is most efficient in removing fungal surface contamination without significantly affecting the detection of prey DNA in the gut. Based on these results, we provide a standard protocol for efficient body surface decontamination allowing to trace the prey spectrum of microarthropods using molecular gut content analysis.

Particle binding capacity of snail saliva.

Gastropods forage with their radula, a thin chitinous membrane with embedded teeth, which scratch across the substrate to lose food particles. During this interaction, the risk of loosening particles is obvious without having a specialized mechanism holding them on the tooth surface. As mucus secretions are essential in molluscan life cycles and the locomotion and attachment gels are known to have an instant high adhesion, we have hypothesized that the saliva could support particle retention during feeding. As adhesion of snail saliva was not studied before, we present here an experimental setup to test its particle-binding capacity using a large land snail (Lissachatina fulica, Stylommatophora, Heterobranchia). This experiment was also applied to the gels produced by the snail foot for comparison and can be potentially applied to various fluids present at a small volume in the future. We found, that the saliva has high particle retention capacity that is comparable to the foot glue of the snail. To gain some insight into the properties of the saliva, we additionally studied it in the scanning electron microscope, estimated its viscosity in a de-wetting experiment, and investigated its elemental composition using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy reveling higher contents of Ca, Zn and other potential cross-linkers similar to those found in the glue.

A review on intelligent aid diagnosis for dysphagia using swallowing sounds

Abstract Dysphagia, a widespread clinical condition in the elderly, can lead to malnutrition, aspiration pneumonia, and even death. Swallowing sounds emanate from vibrations that occur during the contraction of muscles in the mouth, pharynx, and laryngeal; the opening or closure of the glottis and esophageal sphincter; or the movement of food particles through the throat during swallowing. The development of wearable sensors, data science, and machine learning has spurred growing attention to the clinical method of monitoring swallowing sounds for accurate dysphagia diagnosis. This review delves into the acoustic theory foundation and the application of swallowing sound signal analysis methods, elucidating their potential clinical value for dysphagia diagnosis and treatment.

The hydrodynamics and kinematics of the appendicularian tail underpin peristaltic pumping.

Planktonic organisms feed while suspended in water using various hydrodynamic pumping strategies. Appendicularians are a unique group of plankton that use their tail to pump water over mucous mesh filters to concentrate food particles. As ubiquitous and often abundant members of planktonic ecosystems, they play a major role in oceanic food webs. Yet, we lack a complete understanding of the fluid flow that underpins their filtration. Using high-speed, high-resolution video and micro particle image velocimetry, we describe the kinematics and hydrodynamics of the tail in Oikopleura dioica in filtering and free-swimming postures. We show that sinusoidal waves of the tail generate peristaltic pumping within the tail chamber with fluid moving parallel to the tail when filtering. We find that the tail contacts attachment points along the tail chamber during each beat cycle, serving to seal the tail chamber and drive pumping. When we tested how the pump performs across environmentally relevant temperatures, we found that the amplitude of the tail was invariant but tail beat frequency increased threefold across three temperature treatments (5°C, 15°C and 25°C). Investigation into this unique pumping mechanism gives insight into the ecological success of appendicularians and provides inspiration for novel pump designs.

Mechanical and antibacterial properties of conventional pit and fissure sealants with addition of miswak fibers

The occlusal surface of a tooth is affected by the development of biofilm in pits and fissures as bacteria and food particles accumulate in its complex structure. In this study, miswak fibers containing cellulose and antimicrobial extract were incorporated in commercial pit and fissure sealants. The miswak powder was characterized by different analytical techniques. The powder was mixed in different ratios (0–5%) into a pit and fissure sealant to result in five sealants (Groups 0–5), and their mechanical properties i.e. flexural strength, compressive strength, and Vickers hardness were evaluated. The sealants were also evaluated against streptococcus mutans oral pathogenic bacteria. SEM analysis confirmed irregular shape and micron-size particles of miswak powder. The infrared spectral analysis and X-ray differential peaks showed characteristic peaks related to miswak fibers. The particle appearance increased in prepared pits and fissure sealants with higher loading of miswak powder in SEM analysis. The flexural strength, compressive strength, and Vickers hardness values were obtained in the range of 148–221 (±16.6: p-value < 0.001) MPa, 43.1–50.3 MPa (±1.7: p-value <0.001), and 15.2–21.26 VHN (±0.56: p-value <0.001) for control and prepared sealant specimens respectively. In the antibacterial study, the zone of inhibitions increased with increased content of miswak from 15.6 ± 0.45 mm (Group 1) to 20.3 ± 0.32 mm (Group 5). The MIC was calculated to be 0.039%. The prepared experimental sealant had acceptable mechanical and good antibacterial properties therefore it could be recommended as an efficient pit and fissure sealant.

Oral acuity, particle size sensitivity, and food texture preferences in an older adult population

Changes in sensory sensitivity occur as we age but changes in food texture sensitivity in the older adult population remain poorly understood. The objective of this study was to describe the relationship between oral tactile acuity, mouth behaviour, and particle size sensitivity and their potential influence on preferred food textures in older adults. Older adults (n = 79; mean age = 69.7 yrs) participated in an evaluation of oral health and texture perception through survey measurements of mouth behaviour, and preferred food textures. Oral tactile acuity was assessed using the Grating Orientation Task (GOT) with three grating sizes (0.5, 0.75, and 1.5 mm). Food particle sensitivity was evaluated through a difference-from-control (DFC) sensory assessment of ground quinoa mixed into yogurt, utilizing three particle size ranges (<75, 150–250, and 500–600 μm). The results revealed that the sample containing 500–600 mm particle sizes yielded a higher difference (DFC) score compared to the samples with < 75 μm and 150–250 μm particles (p < 0.05). However, no significant relationship (p > 0.05) was found between the R-indices obtained from the GOT assessments and DFC scores, indicating no association between oral tactile acuity and particle size sensitivity. Liking ofcreamy, leafy, slippery, sticky, with skins,andcombinationfood textures was significantly positively associated with the 0.5 mm GOT tool R-index values, suggesting higher oral acuity influences liking of specific food textures. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were present in liking of food textures among different mouth behaviour groups. These results suggest that texture perception and sensitivity influence texture acceptance in older adults.

The Food-Crushing Reflex and Its Inhibition

Anterior tooth (ANT) contacts induce a short-latency reflex inhibition of the human jaw-closing muscles. The jaw is a rigid class 1 lever for pinpoint targeting muscle force into a single bite point, the pivoting food particle. Seesaw reflex movements around the food particle fulcrum multiply the food-crushing force. Unpredictable jolts of reaction force caused by food crushing are subjected to the rostral ANT and caudally to the two articulate ends of the jaw triangle. The compression/distraction strains of food crushing must be monitored and inhibited by withdrawal reflexes. The mesencephalic ganglion (Vmes), neural myelin sheath, and muscle stretch receptors evolved subsequently to the advent of jaws to improve the velocity of proprioceptive and withdrawal reflexes. In mammalians, the spindles of the taut motor units, stretched by the food fulcrum, send excitatory monosynaptic feedback for the efferent neurons of the respective ipsilateral muscle units via the Vmes. In the Vmes, the spindle-input-mediating afferent neurons are coupled with another source of afferent feedback, which is also excitatory, from the back tooth (BAT) mechanoreceptors. The two sources of excitatory pulses are summated and targeted for the efferent neurons to boost the stretched and taut motor units. Likewise, the afferent feedback from the ANT mechanoreceptors is also coupled in the Vmes with concomitant feedback from spindles. The ANT output, however, is inhibitory to negate the excitatory feedback from the stretched jaw muscle units. The inhibitory feed from the anterior teeth temporarily blocks the excitatory potential of the masticatory motor efferent neurons to protect the anterior teeth and jaw joints from inadvertent strains. The inhibitory inputs from the anterior teeth alternate with the excitatory inputs from the BAT to determine which jaw-closing muscle units are activated or inhibited at any given instant of food crushing. The Vmes exists in all jawed vertebrates, and its evolution was probably motivated by demands for the control of bite force. The monosynaptic unilateral food-crushing excitatory and inhibitory reflexes (UFCRs) override the coexisting bilaterally executed feed for the jaw muscles from the central nervous system. The hypothesis proposed in this study is that the Vmes-mediated UFCRs combine neural inputs from tooth contacts with concomitant feedback from the muscle stretch receptors for the control of the mammalian food-crushing bite force.