Partial Recrystallization Research Articles

The effects of partial recrystallization annealing and aging treatment on the microstructural evolution and mechanical behavior of austenitic lightweight steel

The introduction of dislocations and nanoprecipitates effectively enhances the mechanical properties of lightweight steel. Herein, cold-rolled lightweight steel was processed through partial-recrystallization annealing and subsequent short aging to achieve a microstructure comprising fine recrystallized grains containing nanosized κ-carbides and non-recrystallized austenite grains containing dense dislocations and nanosized κ-carbides. Thus, the steel exhibited a high yield strength of 1363 MPa, which was primarily attributed to the fine-grain strengthening from the recrystallized austenite grains, dislocation strengthening from the non-recrystallized austenite grains, and precipitation strengthening from the nanosized κ-carbides. Notably, even at this high yield strength, the steel exhibited excellent ductility, with a total elongation exceeding 25%. Moreover, the heterogeneous microstructure of the steel promoted rapid precipitation of κ-carbides during aging. The pre-existing dislocations in the non-recrystallized austenite grains facilitated an accelerated diffusion of the constituent elements of the steel, effectively achieving precipitation strengthening of the κ-carbides. This prevented the precipitation of the intergranular κ-carbides around austenite grain boundaries due to over-aging, which could lead to a detrimental reduction in the ductility of the steel.

Strong yet strain-hardenable equiatomic CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloys by dynamic heterostructuring

Heterostructuring gives solutions to achieve better mechanical performance of metallic materials. For instance, partial static recrystallization by short-term annealing induces bimodal grain size distribution. Distinct from the well-studied ‘static heterostructuring’ by cold rolling followed by annealing, this study introduces ‘dynamic heterostructuring’ by hot rolling. Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) during the hot rolling as a softening mechanism leaves room for dislocation accumulation. With the expectations of enhanced strain hardening of the as-rolled materials with the aid of the DRX, we monitored tensile responses of the as-hot-rolled equiatomic CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloys (HEAs). Among the hot rolling temperatures from 800 ℃ to 900 ℃ with a thickness reduction ratio of 78.6% for the HEAs, the hot rolling at 850 °C results in a bimodal grain size distribution, i.e., partial DRX. It comprises relatively fine DRXed grains and coarse unrecrystallized grains: the latter is harder than the DRXed ones with relatively low dislocation density. The microstructural heterogeneity results in uniform elongation of ∼13% due to the accumulation of dislocations at the grain boundaries inside the soft DRXed grains. This endows the as-hot-rolled single-phase HEAs with strain hardenability without the aid of phase transformation, deformation twinning, or precipitates. In addition, the hot-rolled HEAs with high dislocation density have doubled yield stresses of those of conventionally cold-rolled and annealed counterparts. Considering the industrial benefits of the simplified thermo-mechanical control processes, this work extends the academic and practical value of DRX by dynamic heterostructuring through annealing-free hot rolling.

Three birds, one-stone strategy for synthesis of hierarchically arrayed defective MnCo2O4@NF catalyst for photothermal preferential oxidation of CO in H2-rich streams

A novel strategy with the “three birds, one stone” effect has been proposed to enhance the catalytic performance of cobalt manganese spinel catalysts for photothermal CO-PROX in H2 streams. The approach involves fabricating hierarchically arrayed defective MnCo2O4@ Nickel foam (NF) through a simple hydrothermal post-treatment and partial recrystallization process. Three synergetic effects were induced by the hydrothermal posttreatment of MnCo2O4: (i) the creation of a hierarchically arrayed morphology that strengthens light absorption and photo-to-thermal conversion, supported by finite-element method (FEM) simulations; (ii) the increased vacancy structures to alleviate significant electron-hole recombination; and (iii) abundant oxygen vacancy to facilitate oxygen adsorption and activation. These effects result in the unique hierarchically arrayed morphology and superior structural properties of MnCo2O4 spinel, which significantly enhances the photothermal synergism and catalytic activity of MnCo2O4@NF in photothermal CO-PROX driven by simulated solar light. This work provides a simple and facile strategy for developing hierarchical and defective MnCo2O4 spinel photothermal materials.

On the utility of linear and nonlinear ultrasound for evaluating microstructure-property relationships in laser powder bed fusion 316 L stainless steel

Given the complexity and potential for variability in components fabricated with metal additive manufacturing, the need for efficient, reliable, and nondestructive quality assurance is imperative for advancing its utilization in industry. Here, linear and nonlinear ultrasonic testing is used to nondestructively link microscale features and mechanical properties of 21 distinctly-printed AISI 316 L stainless steel samples manufactured by laser powder bed fusion. Groups of samples were heat-treated to induce microstructural changes under as-built, 600 ℃, 900 ℃, and 1100 ℃ conditions. While a linear ultrasonic parameter, wave speed, could not completely differentiate the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties during heat treatment, the relative acoustic nonlinearity parameter β′ measured with second harmonic generation demonstrated sensitivity to incremental changes in heat treatment temperature, ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, dislocation density, and presence of oxide inclusions. Precise resonance frequency measurements were obtained using a fully noncontact configuration, and shifts in resonance frequency with heat treatment were connected to changes in average grain area and partial recrystallization. The large number of samples and high volume of ultrasonic testing in this study provides insight into part and measurement variability, which is key in demonstrating the feasibility of ultrasonic evaluation as the nondestructive solution for additively manufactured parts qualification.

Effects of annealing temperature on microstructure and hardness of cold rolled high-purity V-4Cr-xTi alloys

The microstructural evolution and Vickers hardness variations upon annealing in the temperature range of 873 – 1273 K of cold rolled high-purity V-4Cr-(0∼4)Ti alloys are investigated. Results show that partial recrystallization occurs at 1073 K, recrystallization is complete at 1273 K, and Ti addition results in grain refinement. Grains become more isotropic after annealing at 1273 K. Besides, precipitates are observed after annealing at 973 K and above when Ti concentration is 1 wt% and higher. The size of precipitates increases with increasing Ti concentration and annealing temperature. Furthermore, Vickers hardness of cold rolled V-4Cr-xTi alloy drops to a minimum with increasing annealing temperature to 1173 K due to recovery of dislocations and recrystallization process. With annealing at 1273 K, hardness does not vary for V-4Cr-0Ti alloy, whereas it slightly increases for V-4Cr-(1∼4)Ti alloys, which is presumably attributed to partial dissolution of precipitates into the matrix. Additionally, purification by further reducing the high-activation impurities and interstitial impurities dose not evidently affect the recrystallization behavior and hardness of V-4Cr-4Ti alloy after recrystallization, however, the low-activation property is expected to be enhanced.

Grain Distribution for Optimal Strength in Homogeneous and Gradient Nano‐Grained Coppers

The distribution of grains plays a crucial role in determining the strength of polycrystalline copper when the grain size is constant. Herein, the mechanical properties of homogeneous nano‐grained (HNG) and gradient nano‐grained (GNG) coppers with different grain distributions are examined using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The HNG‐ordered structure has all triple junctions (TJs), whereas the random structure contains many quadruple and quintuple junctions. When grain size is below the critical size in the inverse Hall–Petch relationship, the high‐density TJs in the HNG‐ordered structure effectively inhibit grain boundary (GB) softening compared with the random structure, leading to higher strength. However, when grain size is above the critical size, subgrains are produced inside the large grains due to dislocation slip. In addition, disordered atoms in HNG‐random structure are stacked in the quadruple and quintuple junctions, resulting in thicker GBs. This triggers grain boundary migration, and forms more subgrains at GBs. Subsequently, grain boundary sliding and grain rotation of subgrains induce partial recrystallization in the structure. This consecutively triggered deformation mechanism leads to extra strengthening in the random structure. Further research indicates that combining small‐grained ordered and large‐grained random structures can be a new approach to effectively strengthen GNG materials.

Insight into microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of 5 wt% SiC/Al composites by high frequency pulse current treatment

In order to improve the status of stress concentration and anisotropy of the as-rolled SiC/Al composites, high frequency pulse current was employed to modify the microstructure and mechanical property. Results show that the skin effect makes the current concentrate on the surface zone. The high density current makes the static recrystallization of 35.8% occurred under the condition that the surface temperature is much lower than that of recrystallization temperature of Al alloy, and the grain size is refined from 2.52 μm to 2.06 μm. The obvious recrystallization behavior in the surface area indicates that the non-thermal effect plays a dominant role in the pulse current treatment process. As a contrast, subgrains growth and partial recrystallization occurred in the internal region and transition region under the non-thermal effect, resulting in a slight increase in average grain size to 2.78 μm and 2.75 μm. Nano-indentation results show that the micro-hardness and the indention work recovery rate in the surface area reach 2.09 GPa and 39.8%, respectively, which are 48.2% and 29.2% higher than that of the as-rolled composites, which proves that the mechanical properties have been improved comprehensively compared with as-rolled composites.

Achieving superior strength-ductility synergy in a heterostructured magnesium alloy via low-temperature extrusion and low-temperature annealing

A low-alloyed Mg-1.2Zn-0.1Ca (wt.%) alloy was fabricated via low-temperature extrusion and annealing at 250 °C for different times (10, 30, and 90 min) to attain heterostructures with different fine-grained fractions, focusing on the effect of heterostructure on the mechanical properties. Partial dynamic recrystallization (RX) occurred during extrusion at 150 °C, and a lamellar structure consisting of fine RX grains and coarse unRX grains was obtained. The subsequent annealing promoted static RX in the as-extruded alloy, leading to an increased fine-grained fraction from 67% to 95%. Meanwhile, the co-segregation of Zn and Ca atoms impeded the migration of grain boundaries, thus achieving a fine grain size of 0.8–1.6 μm. The sample annealed for 10 min with a fine-grained fraction of 73% and an average RX grain size of 0.9 μm exhibited a superior combination of high yield strength (305 MPa) and good ductility (20%). In comparison, an excellent elongation of 30% was achieved in the alloy with a nearly fully-RXed microstructure and an average grain size of 1.6 μm after 90 min annealing, despite a lower yield strength of 228 MPa. In unRX grains, the hard orientation with 〈01–10〉 parallel to the extrusion direction and high-density dislocations made it more difficult to deform compared with the RX grains, thus producing hetero-deformation induced (HDI) strengthening. Besides fine grains and high-density dislocations, HDI strengthening is the key to achieving the superior mechanical properties of the low-alloyed Mg alloy.

The effect of thermal and strain-induced aging on the mechanical behavior of room temperature ECAP processing of WE43 magnesium alloy

The WE43 magnesium alloy, in case of improved toughness, can be an appealing material for biomedical applications. The effects of equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) and post-deformation aging (PDA) on the mechanical behavior of the WE43 alloy were investigated in this study. ECAP of WE43 magnesium alloy at room temperature is extremely challenging because of the insufficient number of slip systems. An optimized core–sheath configuration is proposed, which applies fully compressive stress on the WE43 alloy as the core, resulting in ECAP of the WE43 alloy at room temperature. Unprecedented strain-induced precipitation of both Mg41Nd5 and Mg24Y5 was observed owing to stored mechanical energy and temperature raise in the adiabatic shear bands during ECAP at room temperature. Moreover, the formation of oriented needle-like Mg3(Y, Nd) precipitates and partial recrystallization simultaneously increased the strength to 410 MPa and the strain to fracture to 11.4% after PDA. A combination of bimodal grain size distribution and a high volume fraction of precipitates increased the toughness to 38.96 MJ/m3 after ECAP and PDA.

Geochemical Aspects of the Frictional Melting of Metapsammites during Seismic Slips (with Reference to Pseudotachylytes of the Ladoga Region)

Based on analytical data on the geochemistry of tectonic pseudotachylytes and their host rocks, the specific trends of redistribution of major, trace, and rare earth elements in the course of seismogenic frictional melting of the arkosic metaterrigenous rocks from three zones of regional metamorphism with different temperatures (greenschist, amphibolite, and granulite) in the Northern Ladoga region are discussed. Oppositely directed trends of changes in the contents of the oxides of major elements in the protolith–blastocataclasite–pseudotachylyte triad were revealed, and a unidirectional increase in the basicity of the frictional melt as compared with the protolith was established at the same time. Geochemical evidence for partial selective melting of the protoliths is discussed. The specific features of the fractionation of trace and rare-earth elements during the transition of the protolith into the melt, as well as during its subsequent partial recrystallization, are shown. The emergence of a peak of elevated europium contents relative to the protolith in the melt matrix of all three sampling points is noted. Based on changes in the concentrations of these elements in the zones of pseudotachylyte substrate generation and in the areas of its moving and injection, the estimates of their differential mobility during frictional melting in a dynamic slip zone are given.

Enhanced strength-ductility synergy in NbC-reinforced FeMnCoCr high entropy alloy with heterostructure by adopting a novel process

We explored a novel heterostructure design strategy to simultaneously enhance the strength and ductility of NbC-reinforced FeMnCoCr high-entropy alloys by adopting grain-scale strain localization regulation coupling partial recrystallization annealing, and the effect of cold-rolled microstructure on annealed microstructure evolution and mechanical properties was studied. The transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) effect and the dislocation density decreased as the grain size increased. The significant grain-scale strain localization and obvious Brass and A textures were observed in the cold-rolled microstructure of the large grain samples. Recrystallization preferentially occurred in the high-strain region during annealing leading to heterogeneous recrystallization nucleation. The recrystallization kinetics of A texture was slow and remained in the partially recrystallized microstructure. A heterostructure with a bimodal grain size distribution was formed in coarse-grained samples. The heterostructure with coarse un-recrystallized grains wrapped by recrystallized grains has good comprehensive mechanical properties. Its yield strength was 1.4 times that of a fine-grained microstructure sample, while maintaining excellent strain hardening capacity without decreasing elongation. The high yield strength was attributed to dislocation strengthening. The TRIP effect appeared earlier in the coarse un-recrystallized grains with low dislocation density under tension, and the back stress strengthening and TRIP effect improved the strain hardening capacity.

Microstructure and crystallographic texture of high frequency electric resistance welded X65 pipeline steel

Microstructure and crystallographic texture and their correlation with impact toughness of high-frequency electric resistance welded (HF-ERW) X65 Grade pipeline steel have been investigated. X65 base metal after HF-ERW has formed a typical hourglass-shaped weld joint with four different regions, including the thermomechanical-affected zone (TMAZ), fine-grained heat affected zone (FGHAZ), coarse-grained heat affected zone (CGHAZ), and bondline (Weld Zone). X65 base metal shows prominent (113) [110] and (112) [110] texture components due to thermomechanical-controlled processing. TMAZ depicted random texture with a minor intensity of Cube component (001)[110] due to the partial recrystallization during welding. In the FGHAZ and CGHAZ, near the bondline, the base metal texture has been converted to rotated Goss (110) [110], Goss (110) [001], and rotated cube (001) [110] due to the recrystallization of the austenite and the shear deformation in the austenite temperature range. A high density of {100} and {110} cleavage planes is observed in the CGHAZ, which is often found to be the fracture location for the impact toughness testing.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of a novel twinning induced plasticity steel with two different grain morphologies

A novel heterogeneous-structure (HS) twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel containing alternating columnar grain (CG) and equiaxed grain (EG) domains was successfully fabricated via prestraining, partial recrystallization, and directional solidification. Compared with the traditional EG sample, the HS sample exhibited a better tensile strength–elongation combination (yield strength ≈ 263 MPa, ultimate tensile strength ≈ 573 MPa, total elongation ≈ 101.5%). The mutually constrained structure could effectively control the unique deformation modes of the EG and CG domains at different deformation stages. The HS sample exhibited stable and continuous plastic deformation owing to the timely release of localized high strain or stress, postponed plastic instability, and restrained crack propagation owing to the constrained structure. The stress relaxation was due to twinning and the effects of geometrically necessary dislocations, which accommodated deformation incompatibility. The improved mechanical properties of the HS sample were due to the persistent occurrence of the TWIP effect under very low to high strain levels during the entire deformation process, the effective grain boundary hardening in the EG domain, and the additional work hardening provided by the GNDs.

Cryogenic impact property of a high-strength-ductility 304L stainless steel with heterogeneous lamella structure

A high-strength-ductility 304L stainless steel with heterogeneous lamella structure (HLS) was fabricated by cold rolling and subsequent partial recrystallization. The HLS was composed of lamellar recrystallized grains (mean grain size of ∼4.1 μm) embedded in a hard matrix of ultra-fine grains (mean grain size of ∼0.65 μm) and dislocation-cell structure. It exhibited a superior cryogenic impact property compared with coarse-grained, fine-grained and cold-rolled 304L stainless steels. This was mainly attributed to the suppression of crack propagation by lamellar recrystallized grains, dislocation-cell structure and TRIP effect. In addition, the extra fracture energy was also caused by the delamination in ultra-fine grains. This work will give an important theoretical guidance for the cryogenic applications of the HLS 304L stainless steel.

Experimental Modeling of the Interaction between Garnets of Mantle Parageneses and CO2 Fluid at 6.3 GPa and 950–1550 °C

Abstract —Experimental modeling of the interaction of eclogitic and lherzolitic garnets with CO2 fluid was carried out on a multianvil high-pressure apparatus of the “split-sphere” type (BARS) in platinum ampoules with inner graphite capsules, using a buffered high-pressure cell with a hematite container, at a pressure of 6.3 GPa and in the temperature range 950–1550 °C. It has been established that the main interaction processes at 6.3 GPa and 950–1250 °C are partial dissolution, recrystallization, and carbonation of garnet which lead to the formation of magnesian carbonate, kyanite, and coesite, a decrease in Mg contents in the recrystallized garnet, and the formation of carbonate, silicate, and oxide inclusions in it. Under these conditions, crystallization of metastable graphite and growth of diamond on the seed at ≥1250 °C were observed. In the temperature range 1350–1550 °C, the garnet underwent partial dissolution and recrystallization in CO2 fluid; no carbonation took place. These processes were accompanied by a decrease in the portion of the grossular component in the garnet and by the enrichment of the fluid phase with calcium. We have established the indicative characteristics of garnet that interacted with CO2 fluid: zoning, with low contents of CaO and MgO in the rims of crystals relative to the cores, and the presence of carbonate, kyanite, coesite, and CO2 inclusions. The compositions of the produced garnet and carbonates are consistent with the data on these minerals in mantle peridotite and eclogite parageneses and in inclusions in diamonds, which suggests a significant role of metasomatism with the participation of CO2 fluid in the evolution of deep-seated rocks and in the diamond formation. In this experimental research, we have first studied the processes of diamond crystallization and determined the boundary conditions for diamond growth in the system silicate–carbonate–CO2, which simulates natural diamond formation media. In general, the established regularities can be regarded as potential indicators of mantle metasomatism and mineral formation with the participation of CO2 fluid.

Suppressing temperature-dependent embrittlement in high-strength medium-entropy alloy via hetero-grain/precipitation engineering

Hetero-grain/precipitation engineering was adopted to improve mechanical properties of alloy over a wide temperature range. Partial recrystallization and L12 nanoprecipitation were simultaneously introduced into a CoCrNi-based medium entropy alloy, resulting in a heterogeneous microstructure. This kind of heterostructured alloy achieves an ultrahigh tensile strength of 1.5 GPa at 500 °C, and still maintains a tensile strength above 1.1 GPa at 600 °C. All elongations exceed 20% at −196 °C and elevated temperatures up to 700 °C, which indicates the breakthrough in temperature-dependent embrittlement encountered by many structural materials with equiaxed grain structures. Such a superior combination of strength and ductility at elevated temperatures can be ascribed to the stable deformed grains and pronounced planar defects, including stacking fault networks and deformation twins. This work demonstrates that hetero-grain/precipitation engineering can provide an effective strategy to achieve high strengths of alloys without sacrificing ductility over an extended temperature range.

On the formation of large grain structure after friction stir processing of ultrafine-grained aluminium alloy

ABSTRACT A tendency for formation of large grain structure after friction stir processing (FSP) of ultrafine-grained aluminium produced by severe plastic deformation was thoroughly discussed. To do so, microstructural assessments using electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis at various regions, including ahead of and beneath the FSP tool were carried out. It was found that ultrafine-grained microstructure of the base metal played an important role in dynamic recrystallisation (DRX) occurring in the stir zone. There are some enlarged grains just ahead of the FSP tool prior to being stirred by it. Partial static recrystallisation followed by grain growth as well as strain-induced grain boundary migration was responsible for the formation of such grains. The large grains could postpone grain subdivision process through continuous and geometrical DRX mechanisms. Moreover, the remained part of the stored strain provided driving force for grain growth after grain subdivision in the stir zone.

Orientation dependent pinning of (sub)grains by dispersoids during recovery and recrystallization in an Al–Mn alloy

The recrystallized grain size and texture in alloys can be controlled via the microchemistry state during thermomechanical processing. The influence of concurrent precipitation on recovery and recrystallization is here analyzed by directly correlating (sub)grains of P, CubeND and Cube orientation with second-phase particles in a cold-rolled and non-isothermally annealed Al–Mn alloy. The recrystallized state is dominated by coarse elongated grains with a strong P, weaker CubeND and even weaker Cube texture. The correlated data enables orientation dependent quantification of density and size of dispersoids on sub-boundaries and of subgrains in the deformation zones around large constituent particles. A new modified expression for the Smith–Zener drag from dispersoids on sub-boundaries is derived and used. The results show that drag on (sub)grain boundaries from dispersoids is orientation dependent, with Cube subgrains experiencing the highest drag after recovery and partial recrystallization. The often-observed size advantage of Cube subgrains is not realized due to increased drag, thereby promoting particle-stimulated nucleation (PSN). Relatively fewer and larger dispersoids in deformation zones around large particles give a reduced drag on PSN nuclei, further strengthening PSN. Observations substantiating stronger P texture compared to CubeND texture are higher frequency of P subgrains and faster growth of these subgrains. The applied methodology enables a better understanding of the mechanisms behind the orientation dependent nucleation and growth behavior during recovery and recrystallization with strong concurrent precipitation in Al–Mn alloys. In particular, the methodology gives new insights into the strong P and CubeND textures compared to the Cube texture.

Excimer laser annealing suppresses the bubbles in the recrystallization of argon-implantation induced amorphous germanium

We have investigated the recrystallization behavior of the argon (Ar) bubble-rich amorphous germanium (a-Ge) by utilizing the excimer laser annealing (ELA) in comparison with the conventional furnace annealing (FA). We demonstrate that the ELA can efficiently suppress the Ar bubbles to have good recrystallization of a-Ge in sharp contrast to the conventional FA treatment where the bubble-rich a-Ge can only be getting partial recrystallization with many dislocations and stacking faults. Transmission electron microscopy results exhibit that ELA can transform the Ar implantation-induced damaged layer into a fully crystalline matrix containing no visible defects except isolated bubbles in a low density. We reveal the critical role of the Ar bubbles played in the recrystallization behavior of the a-Ge by comparing the two types of annealing methods. This finding provides a new routine to suppress the implantation-induced noble-gas bubbles in semiconductors to solve the issue of the high-quality regrowth of the noble–gas implanted layer.

Investigation on microstructure, superior tensile property and its mechanism in Al0.3CoCrFeNi high-entropy alloy via thermo-mechanical processing

In this study, the fully annealed Al0.3CoCrFeNi high entropy alloy (HEA) with single-phase face-centered cubic (FCC) was cryo-rolled and isochronal annealed at different temperatures from 1123 K to 1473 K for 1 h. The effects of annealing temperature on microstructure, grain boundary evolution, and mechanical properties, especially the deformation mechanism of cryo-rolled Al0.3CoCrFeNi alloys were systematically investigated using XRD, EBSD, TEM, microhardness, and tensile tests. A partial recrystallization was achieved after annealing in the 1123 K and 1223 K temperature ranges, which was mainly attributed to that the precipitation of B2 phase can effectively improve the nucleation rate of phase boundary and play a barrier role in growth of grain. Additionally, The remarkable combination of strength (yield strength of ∼911 MPa and ultimate tensile strength of ∼1146 MPa) and ductility (fracture elongation of ∼23%) achieved in cryo-rolled Al0.3CoCrFeNi alloy annealed at 1123 K with heterogeneous microstructure was mainly due to the contributions of back stress and grain size. It was noticeable that the FCC → 9R phase → twin transformation was found in cryo-rolled Al0.3CoCrFeNi HEA annealed at 1473 K during the tensile deformation, which indicated that twin-induced plasticity and phase transformation induced plasticity were reason for the outstanding ductility and strain hardening ability of this sample. This research are important not only for understanding the strengthening mechanisms of HEAs with various microstructure in general, but also for guiding thermo-mechanical processing of single-phase FCC HEAs.