Partial Interval Recording Research Articles

The Impact of Combined Within- and Across-Activity Choice on the Indices of Happiness and Unhappiness of Autistic Children

Abstract Objectives Autistic children often have fewer opportunities to develop autonomy and demonstrate self-determined behavior, which are key to quality of life. Including opportunities for making choices during discrete trial training (DTT) may promote self-determination. Studies have shown that embedding choice opportunities into DTT can reduce problem behaviors and increase academic engagement, but the effects of choice on quality of life indicators such as signs of happiness have rarely been examined. The purpose of this study was to measure changes in operationally defined individualized indices of happiness and unhappiness of three autistic children during DTT sessions with embedded choice-making opportunities. Methods Three preschool boys on the autism spectrum participated in the study. Their indices of happiness and unhappiness were measured using 15-s partial interval recording, while their task engagement was measured using 15-s whole interval recording. A concurrent multiple baseline across participants design was used to examine the effects of the choice intervention package. Results The additional choice-making opportunities moderately improved the behavioral indicators of happiness and unhappiness of all three children. Small improvements in task engagement were also observed for two of the three children. Conclusions This study demonstrated that various types of choice can be embedded into DTT programs for autistic children and provided preliminary evidence that additional opportunities for choice within DTT can improve the behavioral indicators of mood of autistic children.

예방･교수･강화 프로그램이 통합유치원 발달지체 유아의 도전행동과 바람직한 행동에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the Prevent-Teach-Reinforce program on the challenging and desirable behaviors exhibited by young children with developmental delays within an inclusive kindergarten classroom. Three-year-old children, each experiencing developmental delays, were selected from an inclusive kindergarten. Following this selection process, these children participated in an intervention employing the Prevent-Teach-Reinforce program for Young Children. This research adopted a single-subject design methodology and proceeded through sequential phases—including baseline, intervention, and maintenance—utilizing the multiple probe design across participants. The target behaviors, encompassing both challenging and desirable behaviors, were systematically observed using the partial-interval recording and the controlled presentations recording. In addition, to analyze the effectiveness of the intervention, visual analysis and effect size calculations were performed. The findings of this study are delineated as follows: First, the implementation of the Prevent-Teach-Reinforce model among the three young children with developmental delays within the inclusive kindergarten context led to a notable reduction in challenging behaviors—with this reduction effectively maintained. Second, after implementing the Prevent-Teach-Reinforce model, there was an improvement in desirable behaviors exhibited by the young participants, which contributed positively to the maintenance of the behaviors’ enhancement. Consequently, these findings show the effectiveness of the Prevent-Teach-Reinforce program in reducing challenging behaviors and promoting desirable behaviors among young children with developmental delays in inclusive kindergarten settings. Based on the findings from this study, implications for behavior intervention measures implemented based on cooperation between teachers and parents in an inclusive kindergarten classroom were discussed.

Identifying and Validating Indices of Happiness and Unhappiness in Autistic Children and Examining Them as Quality of Life Indicators During Presession Pairing

ObjectivesHappiness is paramount to an improved quality of life (QoL), but there are barriers to assessing the happiness and overall QoL of autistic children using traditional measures. To address this, Study 1 aimed to identify and validate the idiosyncratic mood indices of three autistic children. In Study 2, these indices were measured as QoL indicators during discrete trial teaching (DTT) sessions that followed presession pairing. Task engagement was recorded as a secondary measure.MethodsThree preschool boys on the autism spectrum participated in both studies. Their individualized indices of happiness and unhappiness were first identified and validated using an abbreviated procedure that extended previous research. The effects of presession pairing were then examined using a concurrent multiple baseline design across participants. The idiosyncratic mood indices were measured using 10-s partial interval recording, while task engagement was measured using 15-s whole interval recording.ResultsStudy 1 demonstrated that the abbreviated procedure was efficient for identifying and validating the idiosyncratic mood indices of the participants. Study 2 found that presession pairing improved the mood of all three children during DTT, but there were minimal increases in task engagement. Percentage of nonoverlapping data (PND) scores initially revealed no effects for indices of happiness (M = 43.2%), large effects for indices of unhappiness (M = 76.4%), and no effects for task engagement (M = 37.6%). Contrary to this, omnibus Tau-U scores suggested large effects for indices of happiness (Tau-U = 0.7), very large effects for indices of unhappiness (Tau-U = 0.9), and moderate effects for task engagement (Tau-U = 0.5).ConclusionsIndividualized indices of happiness and unhappiness can and should be used as QoL indicators during behavioral interventions for autistic children.

Effects of Mindful Engagement and Attention on Reciprocal Caregiver and Client Interactions: A Behavioral Analysis of Moment-to-Moment Changes During Mindfulness Practice

ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to examine the effects of Mindfulness-Based Positive Behavior Support (MBPBS) training on the nature of caregiver and client reciprocal interactions at a moment-by-moment level using behavior analytic methodology. Specifically, we compared the behavior of caregivers and clients before and after MBPBS training for the caregivers in terms of caregiver-client engagement, percent of learning and leisure interactions during caregiver-client engagement, and percent of the clients’ challenging behaviors and socially acceptable behaviors during learning and leisure interactions. In addition, we examined the effects of specific conditionality of attentional responses of the caregivers to the clients’ challenging or socially acceptable behavior in terms of frequency, latency, duration, and quality.MethodCaregiver and client engagements were videotaped before and after MBPBS training for the caregivers. The percent of caregiver-client engagement was analyzed using partial-interval recording for overall engagement and the clients’ challenging behaviors and socially acceptable behaviors during learning and leisure interactions. The effects of the caregivers’ attentional responses to the clients’ challenging behaviors and socially acceptable behaviors were analyzed using whole-interval recording.ResultsTraining caregivers in MBPBS significantly increased caregiver-client engagement during learning and leisure activities, which resulted in the clients exhibiting fewer challenging behaviors and more socially appropriate behaviors. Furthermore, an analysis of the effects of different types of caregiver attention showed differential effects on the clients’ challenging behaviors and socially acceptable behaviors.ConclusionsThe results indicated that behavior analytic methods can be used as an objective and reliable way of capturing the nature of changes in predefined behaviors of both caregivers and clients at a moment-by-moment level following training of the caregivers in a mindfulness-based program. Using such an analytic method may provide an effective way of objectively measuring some experiential processes involved in mindfulness training.

반응중단 및 재지시와 자기점검 전략이 자폐 성향 지적장애 중학생의 지연반향어에 미치는 효과

This study aimed to assess the effects of Response Interruption and Redirection (RIRD) and Self-Monitoring strategy on delayed echolalia in a middle school student with intellectual disabilities. One student with intellectual disabilities participated in the study. The target behavior was delayed echolalia that lasted for five s or longer at drawing activities during lunchtime. Regarding the first intervention, RIRD, the teacher interrupted the delayed echolalia with questions and then gave appropriate instructions. Considering the second intervention, the Self-Monitoring strategy, the student used a decibel (dB) measuring mobile application (APP) on a table to record the behavior for Self-Monitoring. The experiment used an alternating treatments design to compare between the effects of the two interventions on delayed echolalia. Observations were conducted by recording drawing activities during lunchtime. Thereafter, the video was reviewed. The percentage of occurrence of delayed echolalia was measured using the 20-s partial-interval recording. Visual analysis was performed based on the collected data. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated using Tau-U and improvement rate difference. The results of visual analysis showed that the Self-Monitoring strategy was more effective compared with RIRD. However, both interventions showed a high effect size. Based on the experimental procedures and results of this study, If RIRD and Self-Monitoring strategy are implemented in educational settings, delayed echolalia in students with intellectual disabilities could be more effectively managed.

How Might Indices of Happiness Inform Early Intervention Research and Decision Making?

ObjectivesThe child-caregiver relationship is the foundation for which intervention occurs. Therefore, the acceptability of the intervention should be considered for both parties. Indices of happiness (IOH) have shown to be effective in assessing social validity and providing insight to improving interventions to promote better quality of life. However, to date, there is limited attention to the integration of IOH in very early caregiver-led intervention. The purpose of this study is to explore how researchers and clinicians might collect direct data on IOH to assess the acceptability of an intervention.MethodsParticipants in this study included 4 children, ages 19–26 months old, identified as “at-risk” for autism, and their caregivers. Caregiver-led intervention focused on pairing, play, and following the child’s lead. IOH data was collected on both child and caregiver using 10 s partial-interval recording. Data analysis from the intervention is presented using three different approaches: pre/post-analysis on an individual level, pre/post-analysis on a dyad level, and during intervention as a primary dependent variable.ResultsVariations were seen in levels of happiness, both on an individual level and dyad level. IOH for caregivers increased in relation as their fidelity increased but child IOH decreased as they acquired the targeted skill.ConclusionsDirect observation of happiness data is likely to provide valuable insight into participants perception of an intervention. And retrospective analysis may be a valuable tool for reflection and guidance and planning of future interventions.

감각활동과 연계한 그림동화 읽기 중재가 발달지체유아의 수업참여 행동에 미치는 영향*

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of reading a picture fairy tale associated with sensory activities on class participation behaviors of young children with developmental delay. The study was a single-subject study and was conducted with three young children with developmental delay who were enrolled in kindergarten using the AB design. Among the children’s participation in class, the target behavior type was decided to focus on attention and follow the teacher’s instructions, and the target behavior that occurred for 10 minutes was filmed by partial-interval recording of the target child’s behavior. As a result of the study, the incidence of attention span among their participation behaviors in class increased after intervention. Also, the incidence rate of following teacher’s instruction increased after intervention as well. Furthermore, the incidence of attention span and following the teacher’s instruction remained constant even after intervention. The results of this study had positive effects on the increase and maintenance of participation behaviors in class of young children with developmental delay, and led to a positive change by using sensory stimulation media differentiated from studies related to reading standard picture books.

Quantifying false positives in simulated events using partial interval recording and momentary time sampling with dual‐criteria methods

The dual‐criteria (DC) and conservative dual‐criteria (CDC) methods allow clinicians and researchers to quantify the occurrence of false‐positive outcomes within single‐case experimental designs. The purpose of the current study was to use these DC and CDC methods to measure the incidence of false positives with simulated data collected via discontinuous interval methods (i.e., momentary time sampling, partial‐interval recording) as a function of data series length. We generated event data to create 316,800 unique simulated data series for analysis. In Experiment 1, we evaluated how changes in relevant parameters (i.e., interval sizes, event durations, IRT‐to‐event‐run ratios) produced false positives with momentary time sampling procedures. We also assessed the degree that the CDC method produced fewer false positives than the DC method with simulated interval data. In Experiment 2, we used similar procedures to quantify the occurrence of false positives with partial‐interval recording data. We successfully replicated outcomes from previous research in the current study, though such results only highlight the generality of the procedures relating to false positive (and not false negative) outcomes. That is, these results indicate MTS and PIR may adequately control for false positives, but our conclusions are limited by a lack of data on power.

Teaching Partial-Interval Recording of Problem Behavior with Virtual Reality

Virtual reality (VR) places individuals within a simulated experience using an array of visual, auditory, and tactile interfaces. Research suggests VR, which facilitates the rehearsal of actual job duties and performance assessment during training, may improve professional development across a range of disciplines. Although studies incorporating technology into professional development for educators are increasingly common, few have examined the potential for VR as a training tool. Direct observation represents a fundamental skill for professionals involved in behavior change. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of an automated simulation in teaching graduate and undergraduate students (N = 31) to collect partial-interval recording data pertaining to inappropriate behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to either a control condition or intervention condition consisting of a brief simulated observation of a student exhibiting problem behavior. Results suggest participants who used VR were more confident in their ability to collect data; however, evidence for improved outcomes related to data collection was not identified. These mixed findings provide tentative support for further research in this area.

The Good Behavior Game: Evaluation of a Classroom Behavior Intervention with English Language Learners

Various reinforcement strategies have been used to manage classroom behavior, including group contingencies such as the Good Behavior Game (GBG). This study examined whether the Good Behavior Game could be effective in increasing academic engagement and decreasing verbal disruptions in a classroom of kindergarten students who are English Language Learners (ELLs). An ABAB reversal design was used to compare baseline conditions to intervention conditions where the GBG was implemented. Academic engagement was measured using momentary time sampling, and verbal disruptions were measured using partial interval recording. Visual analysis of the data demonstrated a clear functional relation, providing evidence that the GBG intervention successfully increased academic engagement and decreased verbal disruptions. Immediate changes in behavior were observed and remained consistent across conditions. A measure of social validity indicated that the intervention was easy to implement, effective, and beneficial for the students.

Decreasing disruptive behaviour during routine dental visits: a video modelling intervention for young children

To evaluate the benefits of a collaborative partnership between paediatric dentists and behavioural health providers in which a practical video modelling intervention, with the aim to reduce disruptive behaviours in young children, is implemented. The video was created by a dentist using readily available technology and implemented in a busy practice setting. A clinical sample of 40 children, 3-6years old, was recruited from a continuous sample of patients seen at the clinic. Participants were randomised into two groups and shown either the brief video model or a control video prior to a routine dental visit. All sessions were videotaped and independently scored by blinded observers. Behavioural data were recorded using 15-second partial-interval recording and included physical and vocal disruptions. Subjective measures of cooperation were also completed by observers and dental professionals. Independent samples t-tests show that the treatment group had a significantly lower mean percentage of intervals in which disruptive behaviour was observed [t(38)=2.94, P=0.008] compared with the control group. Subjective rating scales revealed significantly higher ratings of cooperation for the treatment group from the dentist [t(38)=-5.19, P=0.000], the dental assistant [t(38)=-4.01, P=0.001] and the blinded coder [t(38)=-3.54, P=0.002]. Significant relationships were found between the percentage of actual disruptive behaviour and subjective ratings of the dentist (r=-0.82, P<0.01). Watching a brief dentist-created video model of expected procedures can reduce disruptive behaviour and increase cooperation for young children making their first visit to a busy medical setting.

Procedural sensitivities of effect sizes for single-case designs with directly observed behavioral outcome measures.

A wide variety of effect size indices have been proposed for quantifying the magnitude of treatment effects in single-case designs. Commonly used measures include parametric indices such as the standardized mean difference as well as nonoverlap measures such as the percentage of nonoverlapping data, improvement rate difference, and nonoverlap of all pairs. Currently, little is known about the properties of these indices when applied to behavioral data collected by systematic direct observation, even though systematic direct observation is the most common method for outcome measurement in single-case research. This study uses Monte Carlo simulation to investigate the properties of several widely used single-case effect size measures when applied to systematic direct observation data. Results indicate that the magnitude of the nonoverlap measures and of the standardized mean difference can be strongly influenced by procedural details of the study's design, which is a significant limitation to using these indices as effect sizes for meta-analysis of single-case designs. A less widely used parametric index, the log response ratio, has the advantage of being insensitive to sample size and observation session length, although its magnitude is influenced by the use of partial interval recording. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Comparison of measurement systems for collecting teacher language data in early childhood settings

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy and efficiency of three measurement systems in capturing teacher language use in inclusive preschool classrooms. Specifically, this study evaluated the use of two discontinuous measurement systems (momentary time sampling and partial interval recording) in estimating the frequency and quality of teacher talk, as compared to a continuous measurement of teacher language (timed event recording). Sixteen, 20-min video samples of teacher–child interactions were collected in classrooms serving children with or at-risk for language delays. Samples were coded for teacher talk using momentary time sampling, partial interval recording, and timed event recording. Results indicated that the discontinuous measurement systems did not provide accurate estimates of teacher language, nor did they take considerably less time to complete compared to the continuous measurement system.

개별차원의 긍정적 행동지원(PBS)이 지적장애 아동의 문제행동에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of individualized positive behavior support(PBS) intervention on problem behaviors of a student with severe intellectual disability in national special school. The instructional consultation was focused on the contents and procedures regarding PBS. The target behaviors were three, pulling up the elevator door or inner wall, stuff with tongue, follow along with friends and bother during his studying time at school. The functional behavior assessment led to the hypotheses for problem behaviors in natural context like class teaching at school. The positive behavior support of setting event, antecedent, alternative behavior, and consequence behavior intervention were designed using multiple baseline design across behaviors. The frequency of student’s problem behavior was measured using partial interval recording. The results of the study were as follows. Firstly, individualized positive behavior support was effective to decrease the pulling up the elevator door or inner wall, stuff with tongue, follow along with friends and bother during his studying time at school. Secondly, the effects of pulling up the elevator door or inner wall, stuff with tongue, follow along with friends and bother during his studying time at school by the positive behavior support intervention was maintained after the intervention. In conclusion, this study indicated that individualized positive behavior support through the cooperation of PBS team was effective decrease the target student’s problem behaviors.

긍정적 행동지원이 장애위험유아의 주의산만 행동과 방해 행동에 미치는 영향*

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of positive behavioral support on the behaviour of children with at risk for disability. One at risk child with disability belonging to the public kindergarten was selected for the study &amp; a functional assessment was conducted using the method of interview, direct observation, hypothesis setting, &amp; verification to understand the function of the child's distracting behaviors and interference behavior. Based on the results, multiple elements including background &amp; prior event mediation, replacement technical professor intervention, &amp; subsequent outcome arbitration were conducted. In this study, multiple baseline across conditions design was used between situations, &amp; measurements were taken using partial interval recording for 10 minutes each session. Basic lines &amp; intervention were conducted in three situations, including story-sharing activity, free play activity, &amp; lunch-time, focusing on kindergarten classrooms where activities of the children were conducted. In order to investigate the maintenance effect of the behavioral change after one week after the intervention, maintenance observation was performed in the same experimental environment as the baseline, and treatment fidelity and social validity were measured. The results of this study were derived as follows. First, the distracting behaviors of target child were effectively reduced through positive behavior support based on functional evaluation. Second, positive behavioral support based on functional assessment effectively reduced the interfering behavior of the target child. Third, even after ending positive behavioral support interventions, the effects of changes in the attention-based behaviour &amp; interference behavior of the target child were maintained. As above, positive behavioral support has had a positive effect on the reduction of distracting behavior &amp; disruptive behavior for at risk child. This result suggests that positive behavior support is effective in reducing the problem behaviors of young children with disabilities. The study was meaningful in that positive behavior support reduced the incidence of problem behavior in target child proved positive behavior support to be a useful strategy for managing behaviour for young children with disabilities in early childhood special education setting.

Brief Report: Measurement of Young Children’s Engagement and Problem Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

Given the importance of engagement and impact of problem behavior on young children’s behavioral, social, and academic development, these two behaviors are often observed and measured in early childhood settings. The purpose of this brief report is to describe the findings from an examination of the use of multiple direct observation methods to measure engagement and problem behaviors of five children in early childhood settings across two different activity types. Findings from this study support previous research that young children’s engagement and problem behavior differ depending on the type of classroom activity. In addition, the data indicate that behavioral estimates for both engagement and problem behavior obtained using momentary time sampling produced measures of behaviors comparable with those obtained with continuous recording, whereas partial-interval recording consistently overestimated the occurrence of the behaviors compared with continuous recording. Implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Partial-Interval Estimation of Count: Uncorrected and Poisson-Corrected Error Levels

A simulation study that used 3,000 computer-generated event streams with known behavior rates, interval durations, and session durations was conducted to test whether the main and interaction effects of true rate and interval duration affect the error level of uncorrected and Poisson-transformed (i.e., corrected) count as estimated by partial-interval recording. For both count estimates, shorter intervals and lower true rates resulted in less error than longer intervals and higher rates. For all conditions tested, Poisson-corrected estimates were more accurate than uncorrected estimates. Therefore, using Poisson-corrected estimates and short intervals are recommended when partial-interval recording is used to estimate counts. Generality of results might be restricted to events that are about 1-s long. A URL was provided to aid in the computation of corrected counts.

개별차원의 긍정적 행동지원이 특수학교 지적장애 초등학생의 수업 방해 행동에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the individualized positive behavior support on problem behaviors of two special school students with intellectual disabilities. The participants were students with intellectual disabilities who received education in grade 3 in a special school. The study utilized multiple baseline design across subjects, and measured behaviors using partial interval recording. Functional behavior assessment was also conducted using direct observation, interviews with the teacher, and with motivational checklist (MAS). Student’s personal profiles were analyzed to identify the function of the behavior. The dependent variables were the classroom disruptive behaviors demonstrated by students during class: out of seat behavior, making noise verbally, banging the desk, chatting with peers during the instruction, and lying down on the floor. The findings from the study indicated that the individualized positive behavior supports (i.e., antecedent strategies, alternative behavioral strategies, and consequent strategies) were helpful reducing disruptive behaviors of the two students during both intervention and maintenance phase. The implication included the guidelines for future research and limitation.

Increasing Positive Playground Interaction for Kindergarten Students at Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Students who experience social withdrawal and anxiety (internalizing difficulties) are often overlooked in schools due to the covert nature of their symptoms. The literature lacks empirically supported preventive approaches for kindergarten students who are socially withdrawn and behind their peers in developing social skills. Furthermore, research suggests that parents often are not adequately involved in interventions during this critical period of social development. In response to this need, a school-based intervention was implemented to increase the positive social interaction of three kindergarten students on the playground. Treatment consisted of (a) social skills training, (b) adult mediation, (c) self-evaluation and reinforcement, and (d) parent involvement through home notes. The effects of this intervention were assessed on the playground during recess using partial interval recording of target students’ positive interactions. During implementation of the intervention, all target students demonstrated improvements in social interaction. Future studies should investigate whether addressing the limitations of this study would yield stronger results with this underserved population.

Dependability of data derived from time sampling methods with multiple observation targets.

In this study, generalizability theory was used to examine the extent to which (a) time-sampling methodology, (b) number of simultaneous behavior targets, and (c) individual raters influenced variance in ratings of academic engagement for an elementary-aged student. Ten graduate-student raters, with an average of 7.20 hr of previous training in systematic direct observation and 58.20 hr of previous direct observation experience, scored 6 videos of student behavior using 12 different time-sampling protocols. Five videos were submitted for analysis, and results for observations using momentary time-sampling and whole-interval recording suggested that the majority of variance was attributable to the rating occasion, although results for partial-interval recording generally demonstrated large residual components comparable with those seen in prior research. Dependability coefficients were above .80 when averaging across 1 to 2 raters using momentary time-sampling, and 2 to 3 raters using whole-interval recording. Ratings derived from partial-interval recording needed to be averaged over 3 to 7 raters to demonstrate dependability coefficients above .80. (PsycINFO Database Record