Parking Policies Research Articles

First steps towards a state-of-the-art parking simulator

This paper describes the design of SimPark, an agent-based micro-simulator with state-of-the-art parking components. The goal is to allow the simulation of parking policies and strategies while capturing their effects on traffic flow and personal schedules. Though individuals’ parking strategies are an important part of the simulator, they are out of scope in the presented research. All other components of the simulator are discussed in depth and compared with existing parking simulators.

EVALUASI KEBIJAKAN PENGELOLAAN PARKIR Studi Kasus: Kota Semarang

This research aimed to discuss the parking policy in Semarang which has not been managed properly. In general, the condition of parking management in Semarang is still quite bad. This is indicated by the poor parking service provided and the low amount of parking retribution every year. During 2011 - 2012 for example, the revenue realization of parking retribution was only about 1.3 billion rupiah from the target of about 4.8 billion rupiah, or only about 25 percent of the target set. This condition was worsened by parking services that were very uncomfortable and unsatisfactory. This research used a descriptive method with a qualitative approach. The author used secondary data which was obtained from PATTIRO Kota Semarang. This study focuses on parking policy in Semarang by describing the condition of parking management which already exists and discussing revenue gap between target and realization from parking retribution. By analizing data, the authors argued that the main problem of parking management in Semarang is the weak implementation of the Regional Regulation on parking retribution. In addition, the parking policy managed by local Government tends to be unsatisfactory, potentially leaky, and the realization is far from the target set. Therefore, in order to solve the parking problems, the local Government must seriously implement the local regulation of parking retribution and rearrange the parking management which already exists.

Evaluating Policies for Parking Lots Handling Electric Vehicles

The recent advent of electric vehicles (EVs) marks the beginning of a new positive era in the transportation sector. Although the environmental benefits of EVs are well-known today, planning and managing EV charging infrastructure are activities that are still not well-understood. In this paper, we are investigating how the so-called EV-enabled parking lot, a parking lot that is equipped with a certain number of chargers, can define an appropriate parking policy in such a way that satisfies two challenges: EV owners’ needs for recharging as well as the parking lot operator’s goal of profit maximization. Concretely, we present three parking policies that are able to simultaneously deal with both EVs and internal combustion engine vehicles. Detailed sensitivity analysis, based on real-world data and simulations, evaluates the proposed parking policies in a case study concerning parking lots in Melbourne, Australia. This paper produces results that are highly prescriptive in nature because they inform a decision maker under which circumstances a certain parking policy operates optimally. Most notably, we find that the dynamic parking policy, which takes the advantage of advanced information technology (IT) and charging infrastructure by dynamically changing the role of parking spots with chargers, often outperforms the other two parking policies, because it maximizes the profit and minimizes the chance of cars being rejected by the parking lot. We also discuss how making a few parking spots EV-exclusive might be a good policy when the number of available chargers is small and/or the required IT infrastructure is not in place for using the dynamic policy. We conclude this paper proposing a technology roadmap for transforming parking lots into smart EV-enabled parking lots based on the three studied parking policies.

Impacts of the urban parking system on cruising traffic and policy development: the case of Zurich downtown area, Switzerland

Cruising-for-parking is a common phenomenon in many urban areas worldwide. Properly understanding and mitigating cruising can reduce travel times, alleviate traffic congestion, and improve the local environment. Most of the existing studies estimating cruising traffic are based on empirical data and/or detailed simulation models. Both approaches have large data requirements, and the detailed simulation models tend to have high computational costs. In this paper, we present a case study of an area within the city of Zurich, Switzerland, using a recently proposed macroscopic model to analyze the current conditions of cruising-for-parking. The results are validated with empirical data. The macroscopic model, inspired by a bottleneck model, reproduces the dynamics of both, the parking and the traffic system, as well as their interactions. As such, it calculates the delays encountered by drivers while waiting for parking, and the impact of such delays on the overall traffic stream, which involves not only the searching traffic but also the through traffic. It is shown that the macroscopic parking model could, additionally, incorporate the data generated by agent-based models, cooperatively producing valid and trustworthy results of cruising estimations, while requiring comparatively few data inputs and relatively low computational costs. The study shows that in a small area of Zurich (0.28 km2) with a demand of 2687 trips in a typical working day, cruising-for-parking generates 83 h of additional travel time and 1038 km of additional travel distance. Surprisingly, the worst conditions are observed at noon, corresponding to a maximum number of 30 searchers with an average search time of 13 min. Additionally, four types of parking policies are discussed, and their potential impacts on traffic performance are either quantitatively or qualitatively illustrated. The four policies include: the adjustment of the parking supply, the adjustment of parking time controls, the adoption of dynamic parking charges, and the provision of parking forecasts.

Characteristics Associated with Smoking Among Patrons of Three Philadelphia Parks.

To create healthy public spaces, Philadelphia prohibits smoking in city-owned and operated parks. Identifying the prevalence and characteristics of smoking in Philadelphia Parks would be useful for monitoring purposes; yet no studies have collected this data. This study identified the prevalence and characteristics of smoking among adult patrons entering three Philadelphia Parks (Washington Square Park, Independence Square Park, and Louis Kahn Park). During May and June 2016, we observed patrons entering the parks on Thursday afternoons. We used handheld electronic devices to categorize patrons by smoking status, age, gender, and tobacco product. We used logistic regression to assess the association of these variables with smoking. We observed 4822 people, of which 10.6% were children. Smoking was noted among 2.6% of adults in Washington Square Park, 2.6% of adults in Independence Square Park, and 7.7% of adults in Louis Kahn Park. Patronizing Louis Kahn Park was associated with greater likelihood of smoking (OR 3.11, CI 1.77-5.46) compared to Washington Square. Males were more likely than females to smoke (OR 1.45, CI 1.01-2.09). Higher likelihood of smoking among males concurs with previous studies. Higher prevalence in Louis Kahn Park may be due to differences in park patron demographics compared to other parks. Results could be used as a baseline for periodic monitoring of smoking in parks in order to inform implementation of the smoke-free park policy in Philadelphia.

Repurposing the paving: The case of surplus residential parking in Davis, CA

The city of Davis, CA, has a rich history of high bicycling levels, and the city has ambitious transportation policies and goals. However, both the city of Davis and transportation scholars have overlooked the potential opportunities a surplus of on-street residential parking provides to cities. The existing literature on the influence of parking policy and provision has focused primarily on commercial districts and on large metropolises, neglecting parking in more purely residential areas. In this descriptive case study, we systematically observed the number of cars on a transect of residential streets in the early morning and late evening on weekdays to conservatively estimate the average peak parking demand by residents as a percentage of available parking spaces. On average, only 2 in 7 available parking spaces were occupied during peak hours. We note that the over-provision of on-street parking in residential neighborhoods could be a nexus for the city to achieve its sustainable transportation policy goals while addressing its fiscal and housing supply challenges. We discuss possible design solutions, including providing ecosystem services, implementing traffic calming measures, and creating accessory dwelling units.

KEBIJAKAN PARKIR KOTA BATAM DALAM MENINGKATKAN PENDAPATAN ASLI DAERAH

The growth rate of motor vehicles in Batam City in recent years runs very rapidly. This levy will increase the original revenue of Batam City, But the implementation of the policy of Bylaw No.1 / 2012 on parking that has been running for three years (2012-2015) does not generate significant revenue on parking charges. The Purpose of this research is how the implementationn of parking management system based on evaluation of the policy of Bylaw No.1 / 2012 on parking Btam City. Data retrieval method is done by observation and documentation. Informant selection technique is done by purposive sampling, technical data analysis is done by data reduction, data presentation and conclusion drawing. The result of the research is that the policy of Batam City Government in increasing its achievement PAD not yet optimal, due to some obstacles such as: parking management system is not feasible, there is no public satisfaction survey index to measure the extent to which the achievement of parking policy in Batam City, Human Power that needs coaching and training. Its solution of Batan City government re-filed Ranpeda about parking with the intention of changing parking rates, changing the system of parking management and service facility improvement

国立公園の費用負担に対する選好の多様性：ベスト・ワーストスケーリングによる評価

国立公園の費用負担に対する選好の多様性：ベスト・ワーストスケーリングによる評価

Parking Policies in China’s Metropolises: Rationales, Consequences, and Implications

Metropolises in China, a rapidly motorizing nation, are confronted with the challenge of managing parking pressures. Given the generally increased affordability of cars, most local authorities are making efforts to provide more parking spaces to accommodate additional cars. Although the worldwide paradigm of managing parking is shifting from a supply-focused approach to a restraint mind-set, China has been slow to follow this trend. To untangle the factors that contribute to delays implementing desirable parking policy reforms, this paper examines the development of parking policies in China. This paper characterizes the challenge of parking in Chinese cities as a spatio-temporal mismatch. In the context of rapid motorization, local authorities are subject to political pressure to cater to the increased parking demand by increasing the minimum parking requirements. However, this approach fails to mitigate parking shortages and results in unintended consequences, including relatively high parking density in central and transit-rich areas and imbalanced parking across neighbourhoods. This paper suggests four strategies, including market-based pricing, geographically differentiated supply regulations, and district-based parking management (“Parking management is referred to as various policies and programs that result in more efficient use of parking resources”). These strategies represent policy-reform targets to establish more efficient parking systems in rapidly motorizing urban settings worldwide.

Getting off the conflict treadmill: community engagement and marine park policy in South Australia, Australia

ABSTRACTMarine parks are used worldwide as a marine governance tool to increase fish density and populations, protect rare and threatened species. However, MPAs are often contested and conflict emerges as a powerful factor in shaping their success or failure. This paper reports on a conflict analysis that investigated the role conflict played in affecting the community engagement processes and public acceptability of MPAs in South Australia. We demonstrate that, despite application of world recognised engagement techniques, conflict relating to MPAs persists. This conflict is powerful enough to provoke the dismantling of the MPAs upon a change of government. We argue that ongoing analysis of conflict, including the context, actors, causes and relational dynamics, enables a better understand the role of conflict within and during the community engagement processes. The insights gained may then help break the conflict treadmill to facilitate the conditions needed to apply successful MPA governance systems.

The birth of edge cities in China: Measuring the effects of industrial parks policy

China's government has spent hundreds of billions of dollars to invest in new industrial parks with the intent of boosting the economic growth, by attracting new firms into the parks and also generating spillovers for the local economy. Do such place-based investments in capital raise urban productivity or is this another case of the powerful state misallocating capital in China? This paper measures the localized spillover effects of 110 parks built in eight major cities on firm productivity, wages, and local manufacturing employment growth. We find that the geographic spillover effect of parks is an increasing function of the park's overall human capital level, the FDI share, and its “synergy” with nearby incumbent firms (measured by Marshallian factors). Using geo-coded data, we document that the growth in local employment and wages stimulates nearby local housing construction and retail store openings. The rise of a new production sub-center causes the emergence of a suburban “consumer city”.

A stated choice experiment to measure the effect of informational and normative conformity in the preference for electric vehicles

This work aims to measure the effect of both informational and normative conformity in the preference for electric vehicles (EV) versus internal combustion vehicles (ICV). Differently from most of the literature in the field, measures of conformity are included as attributes inside a stated choice (SC) experiment, allowing a direct comparison of their effects with typical effects such as purchase price, range and fuel/electricity price. To measure informational conformity we set up an experiment where the same individual answers the choice tasks before and after he/she has received social information on three specific EV features: range, parking spaces reserved for EV and the need to change activity schedule if using an EV. Normative conformity was measured in terms of social adoption, social-signalling and injunctive norms. Social adoption and a pair of eyes to detect social-signalling were included as attributes in the stated choice experiment, while injunctive norms were measured using psychometric indicators. The SC experiment was also aimed at testing the effect of parking policy on the choice of EV. Hybrid choice models were estimated and a resampling technique was used to test the model sensitivity to the sample gathered. All social conformity effects tested are highly significant and their impact in the overall utility can be high enough to compensate also quite low driving range for EV (e.g. around 130km) or significant differences in purchase price (for example 1/3 higher for EV than ICV). We also found that parking price and the number of slots reserved for EV can be effective in boosting the demand for EV, but a combination of parking policies is needed because each measure alone does not have a sufficient impact to compensate major differences in the characteristics between EV and ICV.

The Impact of Parking Policy on House Prices

Paid parking is the recommended policy tool by economists to deal with excess demand for street parking. However, we know very little about the effects of this policy on residents. This is particularly important in the context that residents have political power and usually vote against paid parking when it is detrimental to residents. Hence, in our analysis, we take into account that residents receive residential parking permits which provides political support for paid parking. We estimate the combined effect of a paid-parking parking policy – i.e. the introduction of paid parking and residential parking permits on residents – by examining its effect on house prices. We focus on Amsterdam and Utrecht using data over a period of 30 years. We do not find any effect of this paid-parking policy on house prices. This finding is consistent with the idea that residents only vote in favor of a local policy when it has no negative impact on their house prices.

Analyzing the effects of different signs to increase the availability of designated van-accessible parking spaces

ABSTRACTOften, designated van accessible parking spaces are occupied by non-ramp or lift equipped vehicles (NRLEV) with accessible parking permits. This causes inconvenience, safety concerns, and reduced availability of parking spaces for ramp or lift equipped vehicles (RLEV). The researchers conducted a single subject design study with two settings to examine a differential comparison between the standard van sign versus intervention signs (pictorial representation of a ramp-equipped van plus messages) to determine which is more effective to signal NRLEV users not to park in designated van accessible spaces. The study was composed of two phases, a multiple treatment design to compare the effects of the intervention signs during phase 1 and a reversal design to test and validate the most effective intervention effects during phase 2. The results based on observation showed that the interventions signs could moderately reduce the chances of NRLEV users parking in the designated van accessible parking space. Implications of these research findings are discussed and recommendations for changes in state and national accessible parking policies are suggested.

The effect of parking in local accessibility indicators: Application to two different neighborhoods in the city of Lisbon

Abstract When analyzing urban accessibility at a neighborhood scale, the pressure of parking is determinant to decide whether using a private car is an option for accessing local facilities or not. This paper intends to analyze the impact of different parking pressure characteristics in the estimation of local accessibility. Short trips to pharmacies, groceries, bakeries and primary schools were analyzed and a comparison of accessibility indicators for walking and car was made, considering four different parking scenarios. The methodology was applied to two different neighborhoods in the city of Lisbon, with significant differences in their urban planning and mobility patterns. The results obtained show that, for a neighborhood with high walking accessibility, only a low parking pressure scenario would have better indicators when compared to the walking mode. The increase in 5 min in the time for the search for a parking place represents a decrease in the accessibility indicators in more than 20% and an elimination of the parking searching time plus a reduction of the distance to destination up to 25 m can increase accessibility up to 47%. However, in areas more car-oriented, parking management can lead to significant reductions in car attractiveness. Only a high or very high pressure parking scenario would be less attractive than the walking mode. The parking policies could lead to a decrease in 80% of the car accessibility. Yet, this kind of measure would not represent a better overall accessibility to the neighborhood, contributing, however to a lower use of the motorized modes.

Do Parking Maximums Deter Housing Development?

Local governments often see parking as an essential amenity to maintain competitiveness. Restrictive parking policy, therefore, could potentially deter investment and local development. This study examines the effect of residential parking restraints on multifamily housing supply in London, United Kingdom. We find that the effect varies with car ownership and usage levels. Restrictive parking maximums are associated with fewer multifamily housing developments in outer London but more developments in inner London, most of the latter being car-free developments. These results suggest that parking maximums may help restore the attractiveness of inner cities and promote smart growth.

People and parking requirements: Residential attitudes and day-to-day consequences of a land use policy shift towards sustainable mobility

A land use policy shift is taking place in a growing number of cities regarding parking, whereby a conventional supplymanagement approach is being replaced with a parking management approach. As part of this policy shift, manycities are lowering their parking requirements. This study analysed changes in car use, car ownership, spatial parkingpatterns and the consequences for the everyday life of residents in a housing area with a relatively restrictive parkingrequirement in Gothenburg, the second largest city in Sweden. The housing area, a concrete example of howlowering parking requirements can be used to achieve targets on reduced car use and sustainable urbandevelopment, is used to discuss how parking policy should be applied to achieve the desired effect. The results showthat the consequences of the restrictive requirement was paradoxically small in the study area. In practice, therequirement did not result in a decrease in the number of parking spaces, because e.g. of access to parking inneighbouring residential areas. This shows how important it is to adopt a holistic approach in parking policy, by e.g.introducing more restrictive parking requirements in parallel with other measures, such as raising parking charges anddecreasing the number of public parking spaces. It also shows that planning of parking must be coordinated with otherurban planning functions. Otherwise, the actual contribution of a shift in parking policy to the development of a moreenvironmentally friendly transport system and city risks being small, despite lower parking requirements.

Perspective on an urban transportation strategy with BRT for developing cities

A Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system is one of the best strategies for urban transportation, especially in developing cities, mainly because of its cost-efficiency. Starting from Curitiba, Brazil in 1974, including Bogota, Colombia in 1999, many cities in Latin American Countries have implemented a BRT system. In almost all cases, BRT systems are working as a reliable high capacity service. In some cases, BRT systems are well coordinated with an urban transportation strategy framework and/or an urban planning strategy framework, integrating other transportation modes and land uses. Alternatively, there have been very few cases of BRT systems in Southeast Asian countries. Many cities considering implementation of BRT systems do not consider other urban transportation strategies such as Transit Oriented Development (TOD). The objective of the paper is to discuss the perspective of a BRT for developing cities. First, the paper reviews the history of BRT systems followed by a field survey of the results in Curitiba, mainly from an urban transportation and planning strategy point of view. Second, multimodal and inter-modal aspects are discussed, where the relationship with city buses, a balance between private car use and parking policies are emphasized. Third a framework of urban bus planning, management and operation is discussed considering the roles of public and private sectors based on the experiences of several developed cities. Finally, in terms of an urban planning strategy, reviewing the original and applied concepts of TOD, the authors discuss how a TOD strategy could work with BRT systems. The authors address the possibilities and limitations of BRT systems, especially in developing cities. More specific implications are presented in the case of medium sized cities of Southeast Asian countries.

Parking Management Policies Based on Behavior Analysis at Fatih District in Istanbul, Turkey

Abstract Parking has become a critical problem for urban authorities, in particular, historic cities throughout the world because there is a limited space in which to park cars. An understanding of parking behavior is important for city planners to design parking facilities and draw parking policy. This paper aims to present the parking behavior based on interview survey data in Fatih District, which is one of such the historic area of Istanbul, Turkey. Interview survey was conducted to understand the characteristics of parking behavior and preferences for the parking management policies in the five sub-areas that have the difference in the characteristics. Within this paper, statistical analysis was applied to analyze the characteristics of parking behavior of each sub-area. Also, a discrete choice model was developed to obtain significant factors affected on choosing the parking policies. It found that the parking behaviors are quite different by sub-areas. Also, different parking management policies were selected by sub-areas. This will be informative to develop parking strategy for Fatih District.

Review of Parking Policies in the Case of Medium-sized Polish Cities

The problem of parking addressed in this paper is a part of current communication problems faced by European Cities. The rapidly growing number of cars and a range of urban problems related to vehicular communication are in the area of interest for increasing number of regional decision-making institutions [6]. The problem of parking, which is an important spatial issue is becoming increasingly difficult to resolve. One of the tools by which the city can control the problem of parking both in the center and on the outskirts is the introduction of parking policy – a strategy that determines what solutions should be adopted to reduce the number of cars. Especially in medium-sized cities dealing with parking problem is a fairly new issue and it mostly includes resolutions that introduce paid parking zones and pedestrian zones or outsources expertise in the field of communication. The study examined documents, resolutions, parking policies and all other available materials concerning parking in 379 cities located in 16 regions. Cities of more than 10 000 inhabitants were analyzed. The aim of this study is an overview and analysis of parking policies implemented by Polish cities. The texts of studies, master plans, resolutions and notices that create a strategy for parking in various cities were analyzed as a part of this study.