Park-based Physical Activity Research Articles

Point-of-decision prompts for increasing park-based physical activity: A crowdsource analysis

ObjectiveTo examine the potential efficacy of using point-of-decision prompts to influence intentions to be active in a park setting. MethodsIn June 2013, participants from across the U.S. (n=250) completed an online experiment using Amazon's Mechanical Turk and Survey Monkey. Participants were randomly exposed to a park photo containing a persuasive, theoretically based message in the form of a sign (treatment) or an identical photo with no sign (control). Differences in intentions to engage in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity within the park were examined between the two conditions for multiple gender, age, and race groups. ResultsParticipants who were exposed to the park photo with the sign reported significantly greater intentions to be active than those who viewed the photo without a sign. This effect was stronger for women and largely null for men, but no differences were observed across age or race groups. ConclusionPoint-of-decision prompts are a relatively inexpensive, simple, sustainable, and scalable strategy for evoking behavior change in parks and further testing of diverse messages in actual park settings is warranted.

Impact of park renovations on park use and park-based physical activity.

Given the concerns about low rates of physical activity among low-income minority youth, many community-based organizations are investing in the creation or renovation of public parks to encourage youth to become more physically active. To what degree park renovations accomplish this goal is not known. We used the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) to measure park users and their physical activity levels before and after 2 parks were renovated. We compared findings with 4 parks: 2 that were unrenovated parks and 2 that were undergoing renovation. We also surveyed park users and local residents about their use of the parks. Compared with parks that had not yet been renovated, the improved parks saw more than a doubling in the number of visitors and a substantial increase in energy expended in the parks. Increased park use was pronounced in adults and children, but was not seen in teens and seniors. Park renovations were associated with a significantly increased perception of park safety. Park improvements can have a significant impact on increasing park use and local physical activity.

A natural experiment to examine the impact of park renewal on park-use and park-based physical activity in a disadvantaged neighbourhood: the REVAMP study methods.

BackgroundModifying the built environment by improving parks is potentially a sustainable way to increase population level physical activity. Despite considerable investment in parks and park renovations, few natural experiments on the impact of improving amenities on park use and park-based physical activity have been conducted. REVAMP is a natural experiment that aims to examine whether park improvement increases overall park usage, park-based physical activity and active travel to and from the park in the intervention compared with the control park over a two-year period; and to identify which specific aspects of the park refurbishment attracts park visitors and encourages park users to be more active. This paper describes the methods of the REVAMP study.MethodsThe intervention park is a large regional park (329 hectares) located in a low socio-economic status (SES) area in the north-eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Australia. The control park is a regional park (120 hectares) located in a high SES area in the eastern suburbs of Melbourne. Multiple methodologies to evaluate the impact of the park renovation are being employed including: cross-sectional surveys of local residents living near the two parks, direct observations of park users, intercept surveys with park users, and electronic monitoring of path usage and car traffic within the parks. Baseline measures were conducted in April-May 2013 (T1), and an innovative play space suitable for children of all ages and abilities was installed at the intervention park between September 2013 and February 2014. Follow-up measures will be repeated in April-May 2014 (T2) and April-May 2015 (T3). All methodologies will be completed at both the intervention and control parks at all three time-points, with the exception of the cross-sectional survey of local residents which will only be conducted at T1 and T3.ConclusionThis research will inform future park developments, and will contribute to creating an evidence base of the impact of park refurbishment, and the development of natural experiment methodology.Trial RegistrationCurrent controlled trial ISRCTN50745547, registration date 11.1.2014.

Association of Street Connectivity and Road Traffic Speed with Park Usage and Park-Based Physical Activity

The purpose of this study was to examine associations between street connectivity and road traffic speed and neighborhood residents' use of parks and park-based physical activity. Cross-sectional. Kansas City, Missouri. Participants were 893 adults from randomly selected households. Both self-reported park use and park-based physical activity were dichotomized as some versus none. Intersection density was calculated around each participant, and network analysis was used to determine whether participants had to travel on or cross a road with traffic speed greater than 35 miles per hour (mph) to reach the closest park. Multilevel logistic regression examined the association between intersection density and traffic speed wit park use and park-based physical activity. Compared to those in the lowest intersection density quartile, participants in the third and fourth quartiles were more likely to use parks and to engage in physical activity in parks (odds ratio [OR] = 1.76-2.34; all p < .05). Likewise, compared to those who had a high-speed road on their way to the closest park, participants with slower traffic routes to parks were more likely to use the parks (OR = 1.47; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.05-1.92). In addition to park proximity and the design of park features, ensuring direct and safe access to parks through street network design and traffic speed reduction strategies may be key to facilitating park-related physical activity.

The Potential for Pocket Parks to Increase Physical Activity

To assess the use of new pocket parks in low-income neighborhoods. The design of the study was a quasi-experimental post-test only comparison. Los Angeles, California, was the setting for the study. Subjects were park users and residents living within .5 mile of three pocket parks and 15 neighborhood parks. The creation of pocket parks. We used the System of Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) tool to measure park use and park-based physical activity, and then surveyed park users and residents about their park use. We surveyed 392 and 432 household members within .5 mile of the three pocket parks before and after park construction, respectively, as well as 71 pocket park users, and compared them to 992 neighborhood park users and 342 residents living within .5 mile of other neighborhood parks. We compared pocket park use to playground area use in the larger neighborhood parks. We used descriptive statistics and generalized estimating equations for the analysis. Overall, pocket park use compared favorably in promoting moderate-to-vigorous physical activity with that of existing playground space in nearby parks, and they were cost-effective at $0.73/MET hour (metabolic equivalent hour) gained. Pocket park visitors walked an average of .25 miles to get to a park. Pocket parks, when perceived as attractive and safe destinations, may increase physical activity by encouraging families with children to walk there. Additional strategies and programs may be needed to encourage more residents to use these parks.

Use of neighbourhood parks: does socio-economic status matter? A four-city study

To determine if neighbourhood socio-economic status (SES) is associated with park use and park-based physical activity. Cross-sectional study. The use and characteristics of 24 neighbourhood parks in Albuquerque, Chapel Hill/Durham, Columbus and Philadelphia were observed systematically in three seasons (spring, summer and autumn), with nearly 36,000 park users observed. Twelve parks were in high-poverty neighbourhoods and 12 parks were in low-poverty neighbourhoods. In total, 3559 park users and 3815 local residents were surveyed. Park incivilities were assessed and park administrators were interviewed about management practices. The size and number of facilities in parks in high-poverty neighbourhoods were similar to those in parks in low-poverty neighbourhoods, but the former had more hours of programming. Neighbourhood poverty level, perception of safety and the presence of incivilities were not associated with the number of park users observed. However, programmed activities and the number of activity facilities were strongly correlated with park use and energy expended in the park. The finding that park programming is the most important correlate of park use and park-based physical activity suggests that there are considerable opportunities for facilitating physical activity among populations of both high- and low-poverty areas.

Perceptions of Neighborhood Park Quality: Associations with Physical Activity and Body Mass Index

Parks are important resources for physical activity (PA), yet few studies have examined how perceptions of park characteristics relate to PA and health. This study investigated associations between perceptions of neighborhood park quality and overall moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), park-based PA, and body mass index (BMI). Data were collected via questionnaire from 893 households in Kansas City, Missouri. The newly developed neighborhood park quality scale demonstrated good test-retest and internal reliability. Residents' perceptions of neighborhood park quality were related to PA and health outcomes. Perceiving parks as a benefit was positively related to overall MVPA and park-based PA and negatively related to BMI. Perceptions of well-used parks were positively related to BMI, while perceived cleanliness was negatively related to park-based PA. Better measuring and understanding how perceptions of local parks are associated with PA and health can improve appreciation of how parks facilitate active living.

Association of street connectivity and traffic speed with park usage and park-based physical activity

Association of street connectivity and traffic speed with park usage and park-based physical activity

Neighborhood poverty, park use, and park-based physical activity in a Southern California city

A rich literature indicates that individuals of lower socio-economic status engage in less leisure time physical activity than individuals of higher socio-economic status. However, the source of the difference is believed to be, in part, due to differential access to resources that support physical activity. However, it has not been shown as to whether equal access to parks can mitigate differences in leisure time physical activity. Using systematic direct observation, we quantified physical activity in neighborhood parks in a large Southern California city located in areas with high, medium, and a low percentage of households in poverty. We documented how neighborhood parks are managed and programmed and also interviewed both a sample of park users and a random sample of households within a mile radius of the parks. We found that parks are used less in high-poverty areas compared to medium- and low-poverty area parks, even after accounting for differences in size, staffing, and programming. The strongest correlates of park use were the number of part time staff, the number of supervised and organized programs, and knowing the park staff. Perceptions of safety were not relevant to park use among those interviewed in the park, however it had a small relationship with reported frequency of park use among local residents. Among park users, time spent watching electronic media was negatively correlated with the frequency of visiting the park. Future research should test whether increasing park staffing and programming will lead to increased park use in high-poverty neighborhoods.

Park Improvements and Park Activity: A Natural Experiment

Parks are an important setting for leisure-time physical activity. Understanding how to attract residents to parks and encourage park users to be physically active is an important public health initiative. Natural experiments are a research priority for investigating whether changes to the physical environment affect physical activity; however, natural experiments involving parks have rarely been conducted. This natural experiment examined whether improvements to a park in Victoria, Australia, increased its use and park-based physical activity of users. Observational data were collected on park use and park-based activity among park users at the intervention park and a control park at three time points; baseline (T1, August 2009); post-improvement (T2, March 2010); and 12 months after baseline (T3, August 2010). At each time point, observations were undertaken during three 1.5-hour periods each day on 9 days. Analyses were conducted in 2011. In the intervention park, there were significant increases from pre- to post-improvement in the number of park users (T1=235, T3=985) and the number of people observed walking (T1=155, T3=369) and being vigorously active (T1=38, T3=257). At the control park, counts of usage decreased over the same period and no differences in walking or vigorous activity were observed. Improving the features of a local neighborhood park may lead to increased usage and physical activity.

The Role of Park Conditions and Features on Park Visitation and Physical Activity.

Neighborhood parks play an important role in promoting physical activity. We examined the effect of activity area, condition, and presence of supporting features on number of park users and park-based physical activity levels. 37 parks and 154 activity areas within parks were assessed during summer 2008 for their features and park-based physical activity. Outcomes included any park use, number of park users, mean and total energy expenditure. Independent variables included type and condition of activity area, supporting features, size of activity area, gender, and day of week. Multilevel models controlled for clustering of observations at activity area and park levels. Type of activity area was associated with number of park users, mean and total energy expenditure, with basketball courts having the highest number of users and total energy expenditure, and playgrounds having the highest mean energy expenditure. Condition of activity areas was positively associated with number of basketball court users and inversely associated with number of green space users and total green space energy expenditure. Various supporting features were both positively and negatively associated with each outcome. This study provides evidence regarding characteristics of parks that can contribute to achieving physical activity goals within recreational spaces.

Park-Based Physical Activity Among Children and Adolescents

Availability of parks is associated with higher levels of physical activity among children and adolescents. Few studies examine actual park use and park-based physical activity in these populations. This study examined associations among individual, park, and neighborhood environmental characteristics and children's and adolescent's park-based physical activity. Data were collected in 2007 on 2712 children in 20 randomly selected parks in Durham NC. The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) provided measures of physical activity. Hierarchic regression analysis assessed associations among individual, park, and neighborhood environmental characteristics and children's park-based physical activity. Data were analyzed in 2010. Of the 2712 children observed, 34.2% and 13.2% were engaged in walking or vigorous physical activity. Environmental features of parks were associated with activity levels whereas neighborhood characteristics were not. Physical activity was negatively associated with gender (girls) (p=0.003); presence of a parent (p<0.0001); presence of nonparental adult (p=0.006); and an interaction involving the 0-5 years age group and style of play (p=0.017). Higher level of physical activity was associated with presence of other active children (p<0.0001); courts (e.g., basketball); and an interaction between number of recreation facilities and formal activities (p=0.004). These social factors and design features should be considered in order to stimulate higher levels of park-based physical activity among children and adolescents.

Correlates of Park-Based Physical Activity among Children in Diverse Communities: Results from an Observational Study in Two Cities

This study examined correlates of park-based physical activity (PA) among children in neighborhood parks. Direct observation was used to assess PA among children. Public parks in Tampa, Florida (n=10), and Chicago, Illinois (n=18), from low income and high income and racially/ethnically diverse communities. Subjects. Children (n=3410), coded as anyone who appeared to be 10 years or younger, observed at parks in Tampa and Chicago. Physical activity was measured by a modified version of the System for Observing Play and Leisure Among Youth (SOPLAY). Descriptive statistics and multilevel regression models were used in data analysis. At the activity observation level, children's PA was positively related to temperature and unstructured activities in Tampa and Chicago parks. Among park activity area predictors, type of activity area was significantly related to PA. In Tampa, more PA was observed on courts, and less PA was observed in shelter areas compared with open space areas. In Chicago, less PA was observed on courts and fields compared with open space areas. Neighborhood income was associated with lower PA in Tampa parks. Neighborhood race/ethnicity was not a significant predictor of children's PA in either city. Children's PA was linked to modifiable social and environmental features within parks. Strategies to increase PA among children in parks should promote courts, playgrounds, informal activities, and free play.

Does self-selection influence the relationship between park availability and physical activity?

Objective.Increased proximity to parkland is associated with physical activity (PA). This study explored the extent to which self-selection – the idea that active persons simply seek out neighborhoods more endowed with active resources – influences the relationship between park availability and PA. Method.In August 2007, measures of parkland availability within 1km, importance placed on living near parks, and park-based PA participation were assessed for 585 adults in Waterloo, Ontario. Results.Logistic regression revealed that (i) participants who placed greater importance on neighborhood open space were not more likely to live near more parkland; (ii) both park importance and park space availability were associated with increased, and relatively equal, odds of engaging in at least some park-based PA; and (iii) participants who placed a low importance on living near parks but had a higher amount of park space nearby were significantly more likely to engage in park-based PA than participants who also placed a low importance on parks but had less nearby park space. Conclusion.The issue of self-selection does not solely account for the relationship frequently observed between park space availability and PA. Future prospective and intervention studies are needed to draw more definitive conclusions about causality.

Rural and urban park visits and park-based physical activity

Objective A physical activity disparity exists between rural and urban residents. Community parks are resources for physical activity because they are publicly provided, available at a low cost, and accessible to most residents. We examine the use of and physical activity outcomes associated with rural and urban parks. Methods Onsite observations were conducted using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) at four rural and four urban parks. Momentary sampling scans were conducted four times per day for seven days at each site. Results A total of 6,545 park visitors were observed. Both rural and urban park visitors were observed more often at larger parks with paved trails and attended most often on weekends. Rural park visits were more frequent than urban park visits but rural visits were less physically active. Conclusion Although similarities were observed between rural and urban park visits, differences suggest that findings from park and physical activity studies in urban areas should not be considered representative of their rural counterparts. Given that the majority of existing park and physical activity research has been undertaken in urban settings, the need for complementary research in rural settings has been made evident through this presentation of baseline descriptive data.

Association of Parkland Proximity with Neighborhood and Park-based Physical Activity: Variations by Gender and Age

This study examined how the number and total size of neighborhood parks within 1 kilometer (km) of participants' homes, as well as distance to the closest park, were associated with moderate-to-strenuous physical activity (MSPA) in three contexts: total, neighborhood-based, and park-based. Data were collected from 384 adults in a Canadian city. Each additional hectare of park area within 1 km increased the odds of participating in 150 or more minutes of total MSPA by 2% and each additional park increased the odds of participating in 150 or more minutes of neighborhood-based MSPA by 17% (p < .05). Living near more parks and parkland showed more positive relationships with activity among women than men, and among younger (18 to 34 years) and older (55+ years) adults.

Physical Activity in the Park Setting (PA-PS) Questionnaire: Reliability in a California Statewide Sample

The Physical Activity in Parks Setting (PA-PS) instrument is a series of survey questions designed by a consortium of public health and leisure research scholars to gauge park-based physical activity for use in civilian, noninstitutionalized populations. This paper introduces this self-reported instrument and provides test-retest reliability results. Data to test the instrument reliability were collected during 2 waves in 2008 through the California Outdoor Recreation Opinions and Attitudes Telephone Survey. To conduct test-retest reliability we examined the agreement between 100 randomly reselected respondents from the first wave of respondents (n=2004) that answered the same survey within 21 to 30 days of the initial administration. The reliability of measures that categorized individual park use and visitation with others provided moderate levels of agreement (Kappa = 0.44 to 0.64). Questions about park features, facilities and amenity use, and specific park-based physical activity participation were of fair to substantial agreement (Kappa = 0.21 to 0.90) depending on the item in question. The results from these test-retest reliability analyses suggest the PA-PS items were reliable and should be considered in future population surveys that assess park visitation patterns and park-based physical activity levels.

Correspondence of perceived vs. objective proximity to parks and their relationship to park-based physical activity

BackgroundParks are key environmental resources for encouraging population-level physical activity (PA). In measuring availability of parks, studies have employed both self-reported and objective indicators of proximity, with little correspondence observed between these two types of measures. However, little research has examined how the degree of correspondence between self-reported and objectively-measured distance to parks is influenced by individual, neighborhood, and park-related variables, or which type of measure is more strongly related to physical activity outcomes.MethodsWe used data from 574 respondents who reported the distance to their closest park and compared this with objective measurements of proximity to the closest park. Both indicators were dichotomized as having or not having a park within 750 m. Audits of all park features within this distance were also conducted and other personal characteristics and neighborhood context variables (safety, connectedness, aesthetics) were gleaned from participants' survey responses. Participants also completed detailed seven-day PA log booklets from which measures of neighborhood-based and park-based PA were derived.ResultsAgreement was poor in that only 18% of respondents achieved a match between perceived and objective proximity to the closest park (kappa = 0.01). Agreement was higher among certain subgroups, especially those who reported engaging in at least some park-based PA. As well, respondents with a greater number of parks nearby, whose closest park had more features, and whose closest park contained a playground or wooded area were more likely to achieve a match. Having a ball diamond or soccer field in the closest park was negatively related to achieving a match between perceived and objective proximity. Finally, engaging in at least some park-based PA was not related to either perceived or objective proximity to a park, but was more likely when a match between and perceived and objective proximity occurred.ConclusionPoor levels of correspondence were observed between self-reported and objective proximity to parks, but certain individual, neighborhood, and park variables increased the likelihood of a participant being aware of local parks. Future research should examine how people conceptualize parks and what urban and park planners can do to increase awareness and use of these community assets.

Association of park size, distance, and features with physical activity in neighborhood parks.

We studied whether park size, number of features in the park, and distance to a park from participants' homes were related to a park being used for physical activity. We collected observational data on 28 specific features from 33 parks. Adult residents in surrounding areas (n=380) completed 7-day physical activity logs that included the location of their activities. We used logistic regression to examine the relative importance of park size, features, and distance to participants' homes in predicting whether a park was used for physical activity, with control for perceived neighborhood safety and aesthetics. Parks with more features were more likely to be used for physical activity; size and distance were not significant predictors. Park facilities were more important than were park amenities. Of the park facilities, trails had the strongest relationship with park use for physical activity. Specific park features may have significant implications for park-based physical activity. Future research should explore these factors in diverse neighborhoods and diverse parks among both younger and older populations.

Active Living in Latino Communities

Active living takes on unique dimensions in Latino communities. Several papers in this special issue of the American Journal of Preventive Medicine1 Zhu X. Lee C. Walkability and safety around elementary schools: economic and ethnic disparities. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 282-290 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (173) Google Scholar , 2 Floyd M.F. Spengler J.O. Maddock J.E. Gobster P.H. Suau L. Park-based physical activity in diverse communities of two U.S. cities: an observational study. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 299-305 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar , 3 McDonald N.C. Critical factors for active transportation to school among low-income and minority students: evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 341-344 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (166) Google Scholar , 4 Babey S.H. Hastert T.A. Yu H. Brown E.R. Physical activity among adolescents: when do parks matter?. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 345-348 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (125) Google Scholar point to factors in physical environments where Latinos (Hispanics) live, work, play or go to school, that have bearing on activity behavior. Influential factors described here and elsewhere include SES/poverty rate, concern about safety, place of residence, social relationships/social support, acculturation, and park access. 1 Zhu X. Lee C. Walkability and safety around elementary schools: economic and ethnic disparities. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 282-290 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (173) Google Scholar , 2 Floyd M.F. Spengler J.O. Maddock J.E. Gobster P.H. Suau L. Park-based physical activity in diverse communities of two U.S. cities: an observational study. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 299-305 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar , 3 McDonald N.C. Critical factors for active transportation to school among low-income and minority students: evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 341-344 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (166) Google Scholar , 4 Babey S.H. Hastert T.A. Yu H. Brown E.R. Physical activity among adolescents: when do parks matter?. Am J Prev Med. 2008; 34: 345-348 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (125) Google Scholar , 5 Eyler A.A. Baker E. Cromer L. King A. Brownson R. Donatelle R. Physical activity and minority women: a qualitative study. Health Educ Behav. 1998; 25: 640-652 Crossref PubMed Scopus (296) Google Scholar , 6 Stahl T. Rutten A. Nutbeam D. The importance of social environment for physically active lifestyle-results from an international study. Soc Sci Med. 2001; 52: 1-10 Crossref PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar , 7 Treiber F. Baranowski T. Braden D. Strong W. Levy M. Knox W. Social support for exercise: relationship to physical activity in young adults. Prev Med. 1991; 20: 737-787 Crossref PubMed Scopus (133) Google Scholar , 8 Ham S.A. Yore M.M. Kruger J. Heath G.W. Moeti R. Physical activity patterns among Latinos in the United States: putting the pieces together. Prev Chronic Dis. 2007; 4www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2007/oct/06_0187.htm PubMed Google Scholar