Parental Marital Status Research Articles

Temperament and psychopathology in early childhood predict body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms in adolescence

Eating disorders (ED) are highly impairing and dangerous conditions that typically onset in adolescence. However, very few prospective studies have examined early childhood risk factors for ED pathology. Given well-established links between temperament and psychopathology, examination of these factors could inform prevention efforts. The current multi-method, multi-informant prospective longitudinal study tested whether laboratory-observed and parent-reported temperament and psychiatric disorders at ages 3 and 6 (N = 609) predict body dissatisfaction at ages 12 and 15 and dimensional symptoms of EDs (anorexia nervosa [AN] and bulimia nervosa [BN]) at age 15 (n = 458) in a community sample. Results indicated that early childhood temperament (positive and negative emotionality, perceptual sensitivity, impulsivity, less shyness) and childhood psychopathology (anxiety, oppositional defiant, attention deficit/hyperactivity, and depressive disorders), predicted body dissatisfaction in adolescence. In addition, childhood perceptual sensitivity and oppositional defiant and depressive disorders predicted AN symptoms. Demographic characteristics (female sex, lower levels of fathers’ education, and parental marital status) in childhood predicted body dissatisfaction and AN symptoms. No temperament or psychopathology variables predicted BN symptoms. This study is an important first step toward continuing to identify areas of focus for future research on early childhood risk factors for ED symptoms and body dissatisfaction.

Predicting the academic performance of middle- and high-school students using machine learning algorithms

This research is one of the first to predict the academic performance of middle- and high-school students using Machine Learning Algorithms (MLAs) based on numerous socio-demographic (such as age, gender, obesity, average household income, family size, and marital status of parents), school-related (type of gender education and academic level), and student-related (stress and lifestyle) variables. The Grade Point Average (GPA), which is a reflection of academic performance, is considered to be the model output. Five different MLAs are considered to identify and rank the parameters affecting academic performance: multinomial logistic regression, artificial neural network, random forest, gradient boosting and stacking methods. To evaluate the performance of the MLAs, three metrics are utilized: precision, recall, and F1-score. It is observed that the gradient boosting method outperformed the other techniques by generating superior results, followed by random forest. From the model analysis, it is concluded that a health-conscious lifestyle positively correlates to academic performance, whereas the existence of stress has a negative impact. However, gender is not found to be a significant predictor of a student's academic performance.

Embracing Race, Resisting Oppression: African American Parents as Experienced Guides for Navigating Racial Oppression: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence.

This study examined how discrimination experiences, beliefs, and coping in middle adolescence contributed to heterogeneity in African American parent-adolescent relationship (PAR) profiles three years later. Data were from the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study in which 589 African American caregivers (92% female; Mage = 39.15, SD = 6.72; range = 27-74 years old) were interviewed when youth were in 8th and 11th grades. We used previously identified profiles of ethnic-racial socialization, general parenting practices, and relationship quality: No-nonsense High Socializers, Indulgent Average Socializers, Unengaged Silent Socializers, and Authoritative Cultural Socializers. Results indicated that parents' discrimination experiences, racial coping self-efficacy, and racial coping socialization when youth were in the 8th grade predicted membership in PAR profiles three years later controlling for youth gender, parent marital status, and family socioeconomic status.

Prevalence, predictors, and treatment of eating disorders in children: a national study.

Although the prevalence rates of preadolescent eating disorders (EDs) are on the rise, considerably less is known about the correlates and treatment of EDs in this age group. Clarifying the epidemiology of EDs in preadolescent children is a necessary first step to understand the nature and scope of this problem in this age group. Analysis of data collected in the ABCD Study release 2.0.1. The ABCD cohort was a population-based sample that consisted of 11 721 children ages 9-10 years. Measures included reports of a lifetime and current mental disorders determined using a diagnostic interview for DSM-5 disorders, sociodemographic factors, and psychiatric treatment utilization. The lifetime prevalence of EDs was 0.95%. Being Black, multiracial, having unmarried parents, and family economic insecurity were significant predictors for developing an ED. Among psychiatric conditions, the major depressive disorder was most robustly associated with EDs in both cross-sectional and temporal analyses. Only 47.40% of children who had a lifetime ED received some type of psychiatric treatment. EDs were not a significant predictor of psychiatric treatment utilization after accounting for sex, sexual orientation, parent marital status, economic insecurity, and all other psychiatric diagnoses. Despite increasing prevalence rates of preadolescent EDs, the current findings suggest that the majority of children with these disorders remain untreated. Devoting increased attention and resources to reaching families of children with EDs with the least means for receiving care, and screening for EDs in children with depression, may be important steps for reducing this unmet need.

The Impact of Having a Child With Special Healthcare Needs on Length of Military Service.

In 2010, the National Survey of Children with Special Healthcare Needs revealed that parents of children with special healthcare needs (CSHCN) report employment decisions are influenced by healthcare coverage needs. The U.S. military healthcare system arguably offers service member parents of CSHCN with the most comprehensive, inexpensive, long-term healthcare in the country-potentially increasing their incentive to remain in the military. This study explored the effect of having a CSHCN on the length of parental military service. A retrospective cohort was formed using the Military Health System database from 2008 to 2018. Included children were <10 years in 2010 and received ≥1 year of military healthcare between 2008 and 2010. The Pediatric Medical Complexity Algorithm categorized children as having special healthcare needs via ICD 9/10 codes as having complex chronic (C-CD), non-complex chronic (NC-CD), or no chronic disease (CD). Families were classified by the child with the most complex healthcare need. Duration of military healthcare eligibility measured parental length of service (LOS). ANOVA and linear regression analysis compared LOS by category. Logistic regression determined odds of parental LOS lasting the full 8-year study length. Adjusted analyses controlled for child age and sex, and military parent sex, rank, and marital status. Over 1.45 million children in 915,584 families were categorized as per the algorithm. Of individual children included, 292,050 (20.1%) were CSHCN including those with complex chronic and non-complex chronic conditions. After grouping by family, 80,909 (8.8%) families had a child/children with C-CD (mean LOS 6.39 years), 170,787 (18.7%) families had a child/children with NC-CD (mean LOS 6.41 years), and 663,888 (72.5%) families had children with no CD (mean LOS 5.7 years). In adjusted analysis, parents of children with C-CD and NC-CD served 0.4 [0.37-0.42] and 0.33 [0.31-0.34] years longer than parents of children with no CD; odds of parents serving for the full study period were increased 33% (1.33 [1.31-1.36]) in families of children with C-CD and 27% (1.27 [1.26-1.29]) in families of children with NC-CD. Findings indicate that military parents of CSHCN serve longer military careers than parents of children with no chronic conditions. Continued provision of free, high-quality healthcare coverage for dependent children may be important for service member retention. Retaining trained and experienced service members is key to ensuring a ready and lethal U.S. military.

Differences in birthweight by maternal and paternal nativity status in Canada.

Parental nativity, as well as duration of residence of foreign-born parents in the host country, has been shown to be associated with size at birth. However, most studies have focused on maternal nativity status only and have not accounted for important characteristics of both parents. To explore whether maternal and paternal nativity and length of residence (LOR) are independently associated with birthweight for gestational age in a representative sample of infants in Canada. We compared mean differences in sex- and gestational age-standardised birthweight z-score by nativity status of both parents in a nationally representative sample of 130,532singleton infants born between May 2004 and May 2006 to mothers residing in Canada. We categorised parental nativity status into four groups (both parents Canada-born, mother only foreign-born, father only foreign-born and both parents foreign-born) and parents' LOR into three (both ≤10years, only one parent ≤10years and both >10years). We estimated mean differences in birthweight z-score and their 95% confidence intervals in linear regression models adjusted for parity, parents' ages, education, ethnicity and marital status of the mother. Compared with babies of Canada-born couples, those of two foreign-born parents had on average smaller birthweight z-score, -0.23 (95% CI -0.28, -0.25). However, after adjustment, the mean difference in z-score was -0.02 (95% CI -0.05, 0.00). Infants born to parents who had both resided in Canada for ≤10years had a unadjusted mean difference in z-score of -0.27 (95% CI -0.29, -0.26), compared infants whose parents were both Canada-born, but the difference became negligible (-0.02, 95% CI -0.04, 0.01) after adjustment. The birthweight differences by parental nativity or length of residence observed in our study population could be attributed to differences in the distribution of other parental characteristics that affect birthweight.

Racism May Interrupt Age-related Brain Growth of African American Children in the United States

Background: Considerable research has documented age-related growth in brain size as a marker of normal brain development. This is particularly important because brain volume has a significant role in overall cognitive performance. However, less research is done on whether age-related changes in the global brain volume differ across diverse racial and ethnic groups. We hypothesized that age-related growth in brain size would be disrupted in African American children who are historically affected by racism. Purpose: Considering race as a proxy of racism rather than genetics, this study tested racial and ethnic differences in the effects of age on global brain volume using structural brain imaging data. Built on a sociological, rather than a biological theory, we built our study on Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, which argues that under racism, resources and assets are less effective for social groups that are historically racialized, discriminated against, marginalized, and segregated. Considering age as an asset/resource that increases the global brain volume, we expected weaker effects of age on overall brain size of African American and Hispanic children, than White and non-Hispanic children, again as a result of racism. Methods: We borrowed the structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (sMRI) data from the Children Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, which included 9,311 9-10 year old children. The independent variable was the child’s age treated as a continuous measure (in months). The primary outcome was global brain volume. Sex, parental employment, parental education, household income, and parental marital status were the covariates. Race and ethnicity, as proxies of racism, were the moderators. To analyze the data, we used linear regression models. Results: Age was positively associated with the global brain size in children. In line with the MDRs, the positive association between age and global brain volume was weaker for African American than White children, while family structure, sex, and family socioeconomic status was controlled. Conclusions: Under racism, age has unequal effects on global brain size of diverse racial groups. In line with the MDRs, we observe diminished agerelated growth of the brain for African American children, which documents detrimental effects of racism. For White children who are not affected by racism, age makes a large difference regarding global brain volume. Age-related growth of global brain size is diminished in African American children, whose daily lives are shaped by racism. School and residential segregation may have a role in reducing the effect of age on children’s brain growth in African American families. The results should not be interpreted as inferiority of one group but social processes that hinder normal development of a historically oppressed group.

Early academic struggles among children with home-based support from child welfare services

ObjectivesChildren in child welfare services have a higher risk of becoming marginalized as they grow up to be young adults. An important protective factor against later marginalization is academic achievement. Unfortunately, studies show that children who receive support from child welfare services have poorer academic achievement. Most research focuses on children in out-of-home care and on performance in secondary school or school completion rate, while few studies focus on children receiving home-based support from child welfare services and their performance in primary school. Recipients of home-based support is the largest group of children receiving help from the child welfare services, and knowledge on whether this group of children are struggling in the early stages of their education is necessary for knowing when to intervene. MethodThe sample included 104 families of children in primary school (ages 5–13) who received home-based support from child welfare services. Math and reading tests were administered to the children (n = 103). In addition, the children, one of the children’s parents (n = 104), and the children’s teacher (n = 61) completed a questionnaire, including a measure of the child’s mental health (the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire) and social skills (Social Skills Rating System). FindingsDescriptive analyses showed that on average, the children scored below the 30th percentile on the math test and below the 40th percentile on the reading test. Moreover, fewer than half of the children at risk of academic difficulties received help from the pedagogical psychological services. Multivariable linear regression analyses showed that parental income was associated with children’s math achievements, while parental education was associated with children’s reading abilities. Parents marital status was negatively associated with children’s reading abilities. Children with higher parent- and teacher-reported externalizing difficulties had lower math and reading achievements, while we found no association with social skills. ConclusionThe primary school children who receive home-based support from child welfare services had average scores that indicates increased risk for academic difficulties. Moreover, an intervention is highly needed, as fewer than half of the children at risk of academic difficulties received help from the pedagogical psychological services. The results show some important predictors of academic achievement in this population: parental income, education, and marital status as well as the children’s externalizing difficulties.

Childhood residential mobility and health outcomes: A meta-analysis.

This study assesses the association between childhood residential mobility and health-related outcomes by way of a meta-analysis of studies published between 1989 and 2020. The sample includes 844 effect sizes from 64 unique studies. The results point to a negative association (small to medium) between childhood mobility and health. This association is contingent upon the type of health outcome studied, age at outcome assessment, age at moving, and frequency of moves. The major confounders of this association are parental SES, parental marital status, ethnicity, and co-occurring childhood adversities. The implications for future research are discussed.

Prevalence of and risk factors for diabetes mellitus in the school-attending adolescent population of the United Arab Emirates: a large cross-sectional study

ObjectivesThe prevalence of diabetes has reportedly increased among adolescents in low-income and middle-income countries of the Middle East and may be linked to social, demographic and economic contextual factors. This...

Association between the Sociodemographic Characteristics of Parents with Health-Related and Lifestyle Markers of Children in Three Different Spanish-Speaking Countries: An Inter-Continental Study at OECD Country Level.

The purpose of this cross-cultural study was to determine the association between the sociodemographic background of a child’s parents (i.e., their socioeconomic level, marital status, and educational level) with the child’s lifestyle (i.e., Mediterranean diet (MD), physical activity (PA) and screen time (ST)), and health markers. Material: This cross-sectional study included 1273 children, from Chile (n = 496), Colombia (n = 340), and Spain (n = 437). The sociodemographic information together with the lifestyle and health markers of the children were measured. There was an inverse association between a low or medium-low socioeconomic level for the parents of Chilean children and handgrip strength (β −0.61, p < 0.001); meanwhile, for Spanish children, an inverse association between a low or medium-low socioeconomic level and PA after school (β −0.58, p = 0.016), lifestyle (β −0.74, p = 0.015), and with MD adherence (β −0.86, p = 0.004) was found. The risk (i.e., by odd ratios (OR)) of being divorced/separated parents marital status showed an inverse association with abdominal obesity (OR 0.21, p = 0.045) in Spanish children; however, the parent’s marital status and a low educational level were risk factors for the suffering of a low nutritional level in Colombian children (OR 2.02, p = 0.048; OR 2.49, p < 0.001, respectively). On the other hand, a low educational level for parents reported for Chilean children had a positive association with ST of ≥4 h per day (OR 1.82, p = 0.020). In conclusion, in Spanish-speaking children, the lifestyle and health markers of the children are affected by the sociodemographic background of their parents; however, these effects could be moderated by the socio-cultural and economic status of their countries as members of the OCDE; therefore, it is essential to develop policies that decrease these gaps, so that children who are under-resourced can reach their full potential.

Parental income gradients in adult health: a national cohort study

BackgroundDisparities in health by adult income are well documented, but we know less about the childhood origins of health inequalities, and it remains unclear how the shape of the gradient varies across health conditions. This study examined the association between parental income in childhood and several measures of morbidity in adulthood.MethodsWe used administrative data on seven complete Norwegian birth cohorts born in 1967–1973 (N = 429,886) to estimate the association between parental income from birth to age 18, obtained from tax records available from 1967, linked with administrative registries on health. Health measures, observed between ages 39 and 43, were taken from registry data on consultations at primary health care services based on diagnostic codes from the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-2) and hospitalizations and outpatient specialist consultations registered in the National Patient Registry (ICD-10).ResultsLow parental income during childhood was associated with a higher risk of being diagnosed with several chronic and pain-related disorders, as well as hospitalization, but not overall primary health care use. Absolute differences were largest for disorders related to musculoskeletal pain, injuries, and depression (7–9 percentage point difference). There were also differences for chronic disorders such as hypertension (8%, CI 7.9–8.5 versus 4%, CI 4.1–4.7) and diabetes (3.2%, CI 3.0–3.4 versus 1.4%, CI 1.2–1.6). There was no difference in consultations related to respiratory disorders (20.9%, CI 20.4–21.5 versus 19.7%, CI 19.2–20.3). Childhood characteristics (parental education, low birth weight, and parental marital status) and own adult characteristics (education and income) explained a large share of the association.ConclusionsChildren growing up at the bottom of the parental income distribution, compared to children in the top of the income distribution, had a two- to threefold increase in somatic and psychological disorders measured in adulthood. This shows that health inequalities by socioeconomic family background persist in a Scandinavian welfare-state context with universal access to health care.

Co-occurring risk and protective factors and regulatory behavior of infants living in low-income homes

Early self-regulation is a foundation for lifelong wellness and can be shaped by the interplay among several vital exposures. In this study, we examined the emergence of reliable profiles based upon exposure to risk and protective factors in infancy, determined if sociodemographic resources predict profile membership, and determined if these profiles predict early regulatory behaviors in a sample of infants reared in low-income homes. Data were collected from a sample of primarily Black or White mother-infant dyads living in low-income homes in the Midwest (n = 222) during the infants’ first year of life (mean maternal age at enrollment: 26.29 years; range 18−43 years). Exposures included mother-infant interactions; father support; maternal depression, stress, and self-efficacy; home environment; food security; and breastfeeding duration. Sociodemographic resources included poverty status; economic hardship; maternal education, employment, and age; parental marital status; and infant race and sex. Infant regulatory behaviors were measured with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised Very Short Form effortful control subscale (mean age 11 months; range 8.5−14.3 months). Latent profile analysis was used to profile infants by risk and protective exposures. Regression was used to differentiate profiles by sociodemographic resources and to predict infant regulatory behavior from profiles. Three profiles emerged: low father support, good maternal mental health, and poor maternal mental health. A married mother, less economic hardship, and working mothers predicted infant exposure to good maternal mental health. Infant regulatory behavior was best when the infant was exposed to the good maternal mental health profile. Implications for future research are discussed.

Evaluation of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Medications, Externalizing Symptoms, and Suicidality in Children

Childhood suicidality (ie, suicidal ideation or attempts) rates are increasing, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and externalizing symptoms are common risk factors associated with suicidality. More data are needed to describe associations of ADHD pharmacotherapy with childhood suicidality. To investigate the associations of ADHD pharmacotherapy with externalizing symptoms and childhood suicidality. In this cohort study, cross-sectional and 1-year-longitudinal associations were examined using data (collected during 2016-2019) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a large, diverse US sample of children aged 9 to 11 years. Data analysis was performed from November to December 2020. Main and interaction associations of externalizing symptoms (hyperactivity ADHD symptoms, oppositional defiant, and conduct disorder symptoms) and ADHD medication treatment (methylphenidate and amphetamine derivatives, α-2-agonists, and atomoxetine) at baseline assessment. Child-reported suicidality (past and present at baseline; current at longitudinal assessment). Covariates were age, sex, race/ethnicity, parents' education, marital status, and concomitant child psychiatric pharmacotherapy (antidepressants and antipsychotics). Among 11 878 children at baseline assessment (mean [SD] age, 9.9 [0.6] years; 6196 boys [52.2%]; 8805 White [74.1%]), 1006 (8.5%) were treated with ADHD medication and 1040 (8.8%) reported past or current suicidality. Externalizing symptoms (median [range], 1 [0-29] symptom count) were associated with suicidality (for a change of 1 SD in symptoms, odds ratio [OR], 1.34; 95% CI, 1.26-1.42; P < .001), as was ADHD medication treatment (OR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.06-1.64; P = .01). ADHD medication use was associated with less suicidality in children with more externalizing symptoms (significant symptom-by-medication interaction, B = -0.250; SE = 0.086; P = .004), such that for children who were not receiving ADHD medications, there was an association between more externalizing symptoms and suicidality (for a change of 1 SD in symptoms, OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.33-1.52; P < .001); however, for children who were receiving ADHD medication, there was no such association (OR, 1.15; 95% CI, 0.97-1.35; P = .10). The association with medication remained even when covarying for multiple confounders, including risk and protective factors for suicidality in ABCD, and was replicated in 1-year longitudinal follow-up. Sensitivity analyses matching participants with high numbers of externalizing symptoms taking and not taking ADHD medication treatment confirmed its association with less suicidality. These findings suggest that ADHD medication treatment is associated with less suicidality in children with substantial externalizing symptoms and may be used to inform childhood suicide prevention strategies.

Landscape of childhood and adolescent depression in Pakistan: experience from a tertiary care hospital in Karachi, Pakistan

AimsDepression is highly prevalent in children and adolescents in Pakistan, yet, factors affecting depression have not been widely studied. This study aims to assess the demographic and clinical characteristics of depression in children and adolescents and identify associations between parental marital status and confounding factors for depression.MethodA descriptive retrospective study was undertaken at the Aga Khan University Hospital in Karachi, Pakistan. Patient records of children and adolescents (aged under 18 years), presenting to the psychiatry clinic with depression from 2015-2019 were reviewed. The diagnosis of clinical depression was made based on clinical assessment according to international guidelines. Patients whose medical records had missing information were excluded. Data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 23.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., USA). Continuous data are presented as mean +/- standard deviation, whereas categorical data are presented as percentages (%). Pearson Chi-square test of association has been used to assess the association between parental factors and confounding factors. In instances where Pearson's Chi-square test could not be applied, Fisher's exact test is used instead. Associations at p &lt;0.05 (95% confidence limit) are considered statistically significant.ResultA total of 133 participants were included, of which 78 (58.6%) were female, and 55 (41.4%) were male, with a mean age of 15.5 +/- 2.4 (Range: Ages 4–18). The population had a 50.4% prevalence of suicidal ideation, 21.1% of self-harm, 15% of substance abuse and 14.3% of suicide attempts. Academic stress (54.9%), inter-parental conflict (30.1%) and child abuse (29.3%) were the most common confounding factors reported. Other confounding factors include a family history of depression (20.3%), experience of bullying (16.5%) witnessing domestic violence (16.5%), substance abuse (15.0%) and experiencing sexual abuse (6.0%). There is a statistically significant association between children having parents with non-intact marriages and experiencing sexual abuse (p &lt; 0.001, Odds Ratio (OR) = 21.48), having a family history of depression (p &lt; 0.001, OR = 7.04), child abuse (OR = 3.78). Children of non-traditional (not living with both parents) families were more likely to witness domestic violence (p &lt; 0.001, OR = 4.28), have a family history of depression (p &lt; 0.001, OR = 3.44), abuse substances (OR = 3.20) and experience child abuse (OR = 2.48).ConclusionThis study identifies factors that may put children at an increased risk of developing depression and performing high-risk behaviours. The findings can help develop better screening programs and counselling for children and adolescents, allowing prevention and ensuring early diagnosis and care.

Associations between social anxiety and avoidance, attachment styles and parental marital status, in late adolescence

IntroductionThe relation between insecure general attachment and social anxiety has long been established.ObjectivesTo explore the associations between social interaction and performance anxiety and avoidance, attachment styles, and parental marital status.Methods146 Portuguese adolescents, with a mean age of 18.99 years old (SD = .848; range: 18-20), filled in the Social Interaction and Performance Anxiety and Avoidance Scale and the Experiences in Close Relationships-Relationship Structures Questionnaire.ResultsDistress/Anxiety was correlated with avoidance attachment to mother and father (rs = .17*, p = .04; rs = .18*, p = .03), to anxious attachment to romantic partner (rs = .21*, p = .01), and to anxious and avoidance attachment to best friend (rs = .25**, p = .00; (rs = .17*, p = .035). Avoidance was significantly correlated with avoidance to father and to romantic partner (rs = .18*, p = .03), and to anxious and avoidance attachment to best friend (rs = .21**, p = .009; rs = .18*, p = .03). A significant difference was found in avoidance attachment to father X2 = 10.246 (4, n = 146), p = .036, by parental marital status, with the adolescents with single/divorced parents presenting a higher mean score (Md = 111.10; Md = 82.93) than the other groups.ConclusionsDistress/anxiety seems to be associated with more close relationships, and a single/divorced status with Avoidance. Longitudinal studies are needed to explore if insecure attachment to parents predicts insecure extra-familiar attachment, and to explore the long-term effects of parental marital status.

Socio-economic status in families affected by childhood cataract.

To investigate the socio-economic status of families affected by childhood cataract and to assess how the socio-economic status is affected by cataract diagnosis. Children born between 2000 and 2017, seen between the age 0 and 10 years in the same period at Rigshospitalet or Aarhus University Hospital for cataract (N = 485), were included and compared to a matched children group without cataract (N = 4358). Socio-economic status was evaluated by the parents' income, employment, education, marital status and family structure. Parents of children with cataract were more likely to have a low yearly income (OR = 1.60, 95% CI (1.12-2.27)), be out of work (OR = 1.74, 95% CI (1.34-2.26)) and have basic education as the highest attained education (OR = 1.64, 95% CI (1.27-2.13)) prior to diagnosis. This social gradient was not affected by the diagnosis. In addition, a higher number of children with cataract lived in multi-family residencies (13.8% versus 8% in group of children without cataract) and they had a greater number of siblings (6.2% had ≥4 siblings versus 2.1% in group of children without cataract). Families affected by childhood cataract have a lower socio-economic status and educational background even before cataract is diagnosed but the diagnosis does not aggravate the differences between these families and the background population. The lower socio-economic status and parental educational background should be taken into consideration in the management of these families.

The prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and its related risk factors among children at elementary school in Shahroud.

BACKGROUND:Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common reasons for visiting psychiatrists and psychologists. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of ADHD and its related risk factors among children at elementary schools.MATERIALS AND METHODS:This cross-sectional study focused on teachers and parents of 779 elementary students who were selected through stratified cluster random sampling; Conners Parent and Teacher Questionnaires were used to collecting data. The data were analyzed by the use of descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage), independent samples t-test, Chi-square, one-way ANOVA, and linear regression. The significant level was set at 0.05.Results:According to teachers’ responses, the prevalence of ADHD among students in elementary schools was 4.4%, whereas parents reported a prevalence of 0.5%. There was a significant relationship between childhood ADHD and marital status of parents, fathers’ smoking habits, previous experience of living in rural areas, children's previous history of having diseases and using the medicine, previous history of ADHD, and psychological problems in the family.Conclusions:According to the study, teachers and parents suffer from a lack of knowledge about ADHD. Thus, the educational workshops and programs should be held for teachers, parents, and counselors to inform them about the procedures for timely diagnosis and treatment of ADHD.

Black-White Achievement Gap: Role of Race, School Urbanity, and Parental Education.

BackgroundRecent research on Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) has documented weaker boosting effects of parental educational attainment on educational outcomes of Black than White students. Such MDRs of parental education seem to contribute to the Black-White achievement gap. Given that Blacks are more likely than Whites to attend urban schools, there is a need to study if these MDRs can be replicated at both urban and suburban schools.AimTo test the contribution of diminished returns of parental educational attainment on the Black-White achievement gap in urban and suburban American high schools.MethodsA cross-sectional study that used baseline Education Longitudinal Study (ELS-2002) data, a nationally representative study of 10th grade adolescents in the United States. This study analyzed 8315 youths who were either non-Hispanic White (n = 6539, 78.6%) or non-Hispanic Black (n = 1776, 21.4%) who were attending either suburban (n = 5188, 62.4%) or urban (n = 3127, 37.6%) schools. The outcome was standard math and reading grades. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. Gender, parental marital status, and school characteristics (% free lunch and relationship quality with the teacher) were the confounders. Race/ethnicity was the effect of modifier. School urbanity was the strata. Linear regression was used for data analysis.ResultsIn urban and suburban schools, higher parental educational attainment was associated with higher math and reading test scores. In urban and suburban schools, Black students had considerably lower reading and math scores than White students. At urban but not suburban schools, significant interactions were found between race (Non-Hispanic Black) and parental education attainment (years of schooling) on reading and math scores, suggested that the protective effect of parental education on students’ reading and math scores (ie school achievement) is smaller for Non-Hispanic Black relative to Non-Hispanic White youth only in urban but not sub-urban schools.ConclusionDiminished returns of parental education (MDRs) contribute to the racial achievement gap in urban but not suburban American high schools. This result is important given Black students are more likely to attend urban schools than White students. As MDRs are not universal and depend on context, future research should study contextual characteristics of urban schools that contribute to MDRs.

Are Teachers Biased against Black Children? A Study of Race, Amygdala Volume, and Problem Behaviors

Introduction: While the amygdala has a core role in behaviors, less is known about racial variation in the association between amygdala volume and teachers’ behavioral rating of children. According to the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) phenomenon, the effects of individual-level risk and protective factors tend to be weaker for Black than White children due to structural factors such as social stratification and racism. Purpose: Built on the MDRs framework and conceptualizing race as a social rather than a biological factor, this study explored racial variation in the magnitude of the effects of amygdala volume on teachers’ behavioral ratings of children. Methods: For this cross-sectional study, we used baseline socioeconomic data and structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) data of 4305 American children ages 9-10 who had participated in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The primary outcome was the teachers’ behavioral rating of the child. The independent variable was amygdala volume. Age, sex, parental education, parental marital status, and ethnicity were the covariates. Race was the moderator. We used mixed-effect models for data analysis to adjust for the participants’ nested nature within families and study sites. Results: Teachers rated children with larger amygdala volumes as having lower behavioral problems. The concordance between size of amygdala volume and teachers’ behavioral rating of the child was modified by race. For while children, teachers reported the children to have lower behavioral problems when they had a large amygdala. For Black children, teachers reported high behavioral problems across all amygdala sizes. Conclusions: The results can be explained in two ways. The first explanation is minorities’ diminished returns hypothesis (MDRs). In line with MDRs, due to structural inequalities and school segregation, a large amygdala would result in a more favorable behavioral rating of the White children than Black children, as we expect an unequal effect of equal resources across racial groups in the presence of racism. The second explanation is systemic bias of teachers against Black children: meaning that due to their anti-Black bias, teachers report high behavioral problems in Black children, across all amygdala sizes (behavioral profiles). That means, race may trigger some cues and biases in the teachers, so they do not pay attention to the details of the behavioral profile of the Black child. For White children, however, in the absence of such racial bias, teachers behavioral rating of a child reflects the child’s amygdala size.