Parental Emotion Socialization Research Articles

Emotion socialization profiles in military parents: Associations with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Military families face many difficulties, including a parent deploying to a warzone and the subsequent risk of returning with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Symptoms of PTSD are associated with parenting difficulties; however, little is known about how PTSD symptoms may be associated with emotion socialization (ES), a set of processes crucial to children's emotional well-being. This project investigated observed ES behaviors in deployed and non-deployed parents in a sample of 224 predominantly White, non-Hispanic National Guard/Reserve (NG/R) families with deployed fathers, non-deployed mothers, and a child between the ages of 4 and 13. Parents completed self-report questionnaires and families engaged in videotaped parent-child discussions, which were coded for three types of ES behaviors. Latent profile analyses of the coded behaviors identified five profiles of parental ES: Balanced/Supportive, Balanced/Limited Expression, Unsupportive/Distressed, Unsupportive/Positive, and Involved/Emotive/Angry. Multinomial logistic regressions of each parent's profile membership on fathers' PTSD symptoms revealed no significant associations, while additional analyses including additional family factors revealed that greater father PTSD symptoms were associated with a greater likelihood of mothers being in the Balanced/Supportive profile compared to the Balanced/Limited Expression profile, particularly when children displayed average to low levels of emotion during discussion tasks. No other significant associations with PTSD symptoms were detected. Overall, in contrast to the hypotheses, the majority of these findings indicated that PTSD symptoms did not play a significant role in parental ES behaviors.

Development and validation of a scale assessing parental varied responses to Chinese adolescents' negative emotions.

Parental responses to children's negative emotions (PRCNE) constitute a critical construct in the study of emotion socialization in children and adolescents. The objective of this research was to develop and validate a concise scale for assessing how adolescents perceive PRCNE in a Chinese context, resulting in the creation of the parental varied responses to Chinese adolescents' negative emotions (PVRCANE) scale. The PVRCANE aims to evaluate seven forms of PRCNE, including the six types encompassed by the commonly used Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale-Adolescent Version (CCNES-AV), as well as an additional, culturally specific category frequently seen in Chinese families: didactic talk and teaching. In Study 1, a group of participants (N = 901, Mage = 13.39 years, SD = 0.92) completed the initial PVRCANE and the CCNES-Adolescent Version. In Study 2: A separate group of participants (N = 320, Mage = 13.54 years, SD = 0.57) filled in PVRCANE and scales evaluating parental socialization goals and adolescents' depressive symptoms. In Study 1, factor analyses showed that a four-factor structure best fit the data, leading to the final version of the PVRCANE, which includes 35 items. PVRCANE scores exhibited good internal consistency (Omega > 0.79) and convergent validity, demonstrated by their close correlation with traditional CCNES scores. Study 2 confirmed the PVRCANE's measurement invariance for both male and female parents and demonstrated criterion validity by showing significant relationships between PVRCANE scores, parental socialization goals, and adolescents' symptoms of depression. The PVRCANE is a brief, valid, and reliable scale for assessing PRCNE in Chinese adolescents. The study concludes with a discussion on future directions and how this research enhances the existing literature on emotion socialization, with a particular emphasis on the scale's potential application in other cultural settings.

Profiles of parents' emotion socialization within a multinational sample of parents.

Seminal emotion socialization theories classify parents according to two patterns of parent emotion socialization processes: 'emotion coaching' (i.e., parents validate and teach children about emotions) versus 'emotion dismissing' parenting (i.e., parents minimize and dismiss their children's emotions). However, empirical evidence supporting this binary distinction of parents remains limited. Our objective was to investigate whether parents can be differentiated by distinct patterns in their (1) beliefs about children's emotions, (2) emotion regulation, and (3) emotion-related parenting practices. Participants were parents of children aged 4-10 years from the Child and Parent Emotion Study (N = 869) (https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/10/10/e038124). Parents completed self-reported measures of emotion socialization processes via an online survey, which took 20-30 min to complete. Data included in the current study were collected May-August 2019. We conducted a latent profile analysis of parents' emotion socialization (13 indicators). To assess reliability of the profiles, we examined stability of the profiles across (1) parents of children in early versus middle childhood, and (2) fathers versus mothers, via measurement invariance testing. Further, to assess for construct validity of the profiles, we examined concurrent associations between six criterion constructs and parents' emotion socialization profiles. A three-profile model emerged characterizing parents by: (1) emotion coaching; (2) emotion dismissing; (3) emotion disengaged. There was strong support for construct validity and reliability. Our study provides empirical support for distinct differentiated classifications of emotion coaching and emotion dismissing parenting, aligned with emotion socialization theories. We further extend on extant theory and suggest a third 'emotion disengaged' classification, describing parents with moderate levels of emotion dismissing parenting and low levels of emotion coaching parenting. It should be noted that the profiles were derived with self-report data, therefore, data may have been biased by contextual factors. Furthermore, the study sample consisted of Western families from affluent backgrounds. The field should focus efforts on conducting person-centered studies with more diverse samples in future.

Differential associations and concordance across measures of parent emotion socialization: The role of parent and adolescent emotion dysregulation

AbstractAlthough parent ratings, adolescent ratings, and observations are all utilized to measure parent emotion socialization during adolescence, there is a lack of research examining measurement differences and concordance. Thus, the present study compared three measures of parent supportive and nonsupportive emotion socialization and examined whether parent and adolescent emotion dysregulation differentially related to these measures or moderated concordance across measures. Participants were a community sample of 92 adolescent‐parent dyads. Adolescents were 13–17 years‐old (M = 15.5, SD = 1.1), 41 were female and 51 were male; 87% of parents identified as mothers. Observed emotion socialization was coded during a parent‐adolescent conflict discussion task. The adolescent and parent also rated the parent's supportive and nonsupportive reactions to the adolescent's negative emotions; they each also rated their own emotion dysregulation. Due to data collection timing, COVID‐19 family stress was also assessed and explored as a covariate in analyses. Bivariate correlations indicated that there were weak and non‐significant correlations across emotion socialization measures. Multilevel models indicated that measures of parent emotion socialization were differentially associated with adolescent emotion dysregulation, with adolescent emotion dysregulation relating significantly to adolescent ratings, but not observations or parent ratings, of parent emotion socialization. In addition, multiple regressions indicated that there was less concordance across measures when parents were higher in emotion dysregulation. Results suggest that measurement may influence researchers’ conclusions about how youth adjustment relates to parent emotion socialization. Additionally, there may be even lower agreement across measures of parent emotion socialization when parents have emotional challenges.

Maternal and paternal emotion socialization relates to adolescent self-compassion

Parent emotion socialization contributes to youth socioemotional adjustment and is an important consideration for prevention and intervention efforts. Extant research posits that parental emotion socialization influences youth mental health through child-level factors, such as how youth process and manage their emotions. Self-compassion is a protective factor for youth mental health, but the role of parents in youth self-compassion is unclear. Moreover, there is relatively limited research on maternal and paternal emotion socialization in adolescence. The present study examined associations of maternal and paternal emotion socialization with adolescent self-compassion. Adolescents (N = 165, 33% female, M = 14.56 years, SD = 1.34) and their parents completed questionnaires as part of an online survey. Parents’ validation and comfort responses to negative emotions were associated with higher adolescent self-compassion. Parents’ punishment and reciprocation of adolescents’ negative emotions were associated with lower adolescent self-compassion. Similar findings were present for mothers and fathers. Supporting parent-child communication about emotions may be relevant for youth exercising more self-compassion, providing important directions for prevention and intervention efforts.

Corrigendum to “[Parental Emotion Socialization, Emotion Regulation and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Adolescence: The Role of Family Cohesion

Corrigendum to “[Parental Emotion Socialization, Emotion Regulation and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Adolescence: The Role of Family Cohesion

Parental Emotion Socialization, Emotion Regulation and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Adolescence: The Role of Family Cohesion

This study explored the effect of parental emotion socialization behavior (ESB) on depressive symptoms with a focus on the mediating effect of emotion regulation and the moderating role of family cohesion. A total of 236 Chinese adolescents were surveyed and reported on parental ESB, family cohesion, emotion dysregulation, and depressive symptoms. The results indicated that parental ESB toward negative emotions was associated with adolescents’ depressive symptoms, as mediated by emotion dysregulation. Moreover, higher levels of family cohesion both enhanced the negative relationships between supportive ESB toward anger/sadness and emotion dysregulation and strengthened the positive relationship between non-supportive parental ESB toward sadness and emotion dysregulation. These findings clarify the interactive effects of multiple components of emotional parenting, reveal the double-edged effects of family cohesion in the association between parental ESB and depressive symptoms in adolescents, and highlight the importance of evaluating the family emotional context in research and clinical interventions.

Assessing the effectiveness and the mechanisms of the Social-Emotional Prevention Program for Preschoolers: Findings from a universal school-based intervention

The Social-Emotional Prevention Program (SEP) encompasses a multifaceted approach (classroom curriculum, with teacher and parent training) intended to increase preschool children's social adjustment, as well as to reduce risk of emotional and behavioral problems. The present study's focus was on implementing the technology-assisted SEP version and was aimed at (a) investigating the program's effectiveness on children's social-emotional competencies and parental practices, as well as (b) testing the program's conceptual framework, with an emphasis on children's emotion regulation (ER) skills and parental emotion socialization practices as explanatory intervention mechanisms. A randomized-controlled trial (RCT) was conducted with five schools assigned to either the intervention or to a comparison condition (wait-list control). Structural equation models (SEM) and complier average causal effects (CACE) were conducted to evaluate SEP effectiveness on teacher- and parent-rated child outcomes (primary outcomes) and parenting behaviors (secondary outcomes). Findings from the present study indicated that (a) SEP fosters increased social-emotional competencies and increased use of adaptive ER strategies, with teacher and parent ratings converging to support these outcomes; (b) parental participation in the program increased the use of reappraisal and emotion coaching strategies; and (c) children's ER mediated the intervention's effect on social competence, whereas parental coaching and parental ER mediated SEP effects on children's ER. This study's findings suggest that the SEP may be an effective universal intervention for promoting preschoolers' social-emotional competence and may provide emerging evidence to support the program's hypothesized mechanisms of change.

The role of parent and peer emotion socialization and emotion regulation in the development of internalizing problems in adolescents

Adolescence is a dynamic period for the development of emotion regulation skills. Difficulties in emotion regulation are an important predictor of risk for internalizing problems. Parents and peers play an important role in both emotion regulation (ER) skills and the development of internalizing problems, however, few studies have examined their influence concurrently using longitudinal data. This study investigated the impact of parent and peer emotion socialization and adolescent ER on adolescent (N = 213; aged 13 to 14 years old) internalizing problems 11 months later, as reported by adolescents. Results indicated peer but not parent emotion socialization predicted adolescent internalizing problems. Moreover, adolescent difficulties in ER at baseline moderated the impact of peer emotion socialization on adolescent internalizing problems. The findings highlight peer emotion dismissing responses impact internalizing problems, especially if adolescents also report difficulties in ER, underscoring the importance of prevention during earlier developmental periods.

Profiles of parent emotion socialization: Longitudinal associations with child emotional outcomes

BackgroundFew studies within the field of emotion socialization have used a person-centered approach to investigate how supportive or unsupportive parent subpopulations influence child development over time. Furthermore, the role of parents’ emotion socialization processes at different child developmental stages remains understudied. ObjectivesThe current study tests whether parent profiles of emotion socialization are associated with concurrent and long-term child mental health problems and emotion competence, and whether associations differ for parents of children in early (4-6 years) versus middle childhood (7-10 years). MethodThree waves of annual data were drawn from the Child and Parent Emotion Study, a longitudinal study of multinational families (n = 869). We drew on previously derived profiles from a latent profile analysis describing ‘emotion coaching’, ‘emotion dismissing’, and ‘emotion disengaged’ profiles of parent emotion socialization. Linear regression models tested associations between parent profiles (assessed in 2019) and child internalizing and externalizing problems, negative affect, and child emotion regulation, assessed 0, 1, and 2 years later (2019-21). ResultsEmotion dismissing (versus emotion coaching) was associated with higher concurrent child internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and negative affect; and longitudinally with higher internalizing problems and negative affect, and lower emotion regulation. Emotion disengaged (versus emotion coaching) was associated with higher concurrent and longitudinal child negative affect, and lower longitudinal emotion regulation. Split by child age, we found stronger associations in early compared to middle childhood for emotion dismissing and child externalizing problems. The reverse was evident for emotion disengaged, where associations were stronger/more evident in middle compared to early childhood for child negative affect and emotion regulation. Other associations were no longer evident or were consistent across child ages. ConclusionChildren of parents who have a pattern of emotion dismissing or emotion disengaged emotion socialization are at greater risk for mental health problems and lower emotion competence.

Maternal socialization of emotion and the development of emotion regulation in early adolescent girls.

Regulation of negative emotions is a core competency of child development. Parental emotion socialization profoundly influences later capacity to regulate negative affect in childhood and adolescence. The present study examined the effects of maternal emotion socialization on the development of emotion regulation in the context of a longitudinal study of 210 mother-daughter dyads. Dyads completed a conflict resolution task when the child was age 11 years during which maternal warmth and hostility were coded. At ages 11 to 13 years, mothers completed self-report measures of supportive and nonsupportive responses to child negative emotion, and children completed self-reports of inhibition and adaptive regulation of sadness and anger. We used latent growth curve modeling to estimate changes in inhibition and adaptive regulation of sadness and anger over time; observed maternal warmth and hostility were included as time-invariant covariates and maternal self-report of supportive and nonsupportive responses were included as time-varying covariates. Observed maternal warmth was positively associated with girls' adaptive regulation of anger and sadness at age 11 years. Maternal self-reported supportive responses to girls' negative affect were positively associated with girls' adaptive regulation of anger, and nonsupportive responses were negatively associated with adaptive regulation of anger and sadness. These findings support the role of maternal emotion socialization and indicate specific effects of maternal warmth and supportive responses in the development of girls' capacity to modulate negative emotions during early adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Adolescents’ coping and internalizing symptoms: Role of maternal socialization of coping and depression symptoms

Parental emotion socialization, including processes of the socialization of coping and emotion regulation, is a key factor in shaping children's adjustment in response to acute and chronic stress. Given well-established links between parental depression and youth psychopathology, levels of parental depression symptoms are an important factor for understanding emotion socialization and regulation processes. The present study examined associations among maternal coping and depression symptoms with their adolescents’ coping and internalizing problems. A sample of 120 adolescents (45% female, M = 12.27, SD = 1.90) and their mothers participated in a cross-sectional, multi-informant study. Mothers’ depression symptoms and adolescents’ coping were significantly related to adolescents’ internalizing problems. Adolescents’ coping moderated the association between maternal depression symptoms and adolescents’ internalizing problems, where at low and moderate levels of primary control coping, maternal depression predicted greater internalizing symptoms in adolescents. Further, this study expanded on prior work, demonstrating that the relationship between adolescents’ coping and internalizing symptoms was associated with the degree to which mothers model coping. Taken together, results suggest that maternal coping and adolescent coping serve as salient risk and protective factors in the context of family stress. Findings emphasize a need for researchers to further clarify the role of emotion socialization processes in adolescents’ development of coping in the context of family stress.

Mothers’ beliefs about emotions and authoritarian parenting as predictors of young children's behavioral problems

The current study extends key models of parent emotion socialization and child outcomes by testing the interaction between maternal emotion beliefs, authoritarian parenting style, and child gender as a predictor of child behavioral difficulties. In this research, we focus on three maternal emotion beliefs (children can control their emotions, children should be given autonomy to deal with their emotions, and children's anger is valuable) and their associations with preschoolers’ conduct and peer problems, as well as potential moderation of these linkages by mothers’ authoritarian parenting and child gender. Participants included a community sample of mothers and their preschool children (N = 103). Mothers reported their emotion beliefs and authoritarian parenting, and teachers reported on children's conduct and peer problems. Child negative emotionality was assessed through an observational task and was included as a covariate in all analyses. Maternal emotion control beliefs held as the only significant main effect of parenting on child outcomes that was not dependent upon child gender. Mothers’ beliefs about the value of anger related to girls’ peer problems when mothers also reported moderate and low levels of authoritarian parenting. Clinical implications suggest a particular focus on emotion beliefs and parenting style as uniquely important for preschool girls.

Parental emotion socialization: Relations with adjustment, security, and maternal depression in early adolescence.

How parents approach and teach their children about emotions are key determinants of children's healthy adjustment (Denham, 2019). Parental emotion socialization has been mostly studied in parents of young children. Our study identified emotion socialization (ES) strategies used by parents of early adolescents (Study 1) and then examined the relations of ES strategies with early adolescent adjustment, parent-child attachment, and maternal depression (Study 2). Study 1 included 171 parents of 9- to 14-year-old children who completed an open-ended questionnaire about their reactions to their children's negative emotions, which was content coded for ES strategies. We found that parents do use the 6 traditional ES strategies (problem solving, emotion focused/comforting, encouragement, minimizing, punitive, and distress) with early adolescents, while also using 3 approaches not identified in studies of parents of younger children (self-regulation, parent seeking information, parent explaining). We also found that some ES strategies are context and gender specific. Study 2 included 218 mother and child dyads (children aged 9- to 14- years). Mothers completed the Revised Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale, adapted to include items assessing the 3 new strategies, and measures of child adjustment, attachment, and maternal depression. The ES strategies loaded on 3 factors: Collaborative Coping, Negative Reactions to Child's Distress, and Low Expectation for Child's Self-Regulation. Negative Reactions to Child's Distress showed associations with children's internalizing, externalizing, and prosocial behavior, and child attachment, while Collaborative Coping was related to prosocial behavior. Our results point to the importance of investigating additional ES strategies in early adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Cultural differences in maternal emotion control values and children's expressive flexibility

AbstractExpressive flexibility is the ability to express or suppress one's emotions to meet the demands of the situation. Recent work suggests that expressive flexibility is associated with better adjustment. However, few studies have focused on expressive flexibility in children. In addition, there is a dearth of research on possible correlates, such as culture, parental emotion socialization, and socioeconomic status, that may be associated with expressive flexibility competencies in children. The purpose of this study was to investigate cultural differences in children's expressive flexibility, maternal emotion control values (ECVs), and their relations to family socioeconomic status (SES) during middle childhood in a sample of European American (N = 31, M age = 9.61 years; 54.8% males), Korean American (N = 38, M age = 9.16 years; 55.3% males) and South Korean children (N = 77, M age = 9.74 years; 51.9% males). Mothers reported on demographics and their emotion control values. Children's expressive flexibility ability was assessed using a lab‐based observational measure. Multivariate analyses of covariance controlling for SES, child age, and gender suggested significant cultural differences in expressive flexibility, with the U.S. children (both European and Korean Americans) scoring higher on expressive flexibility compared to their South Korean counterparts. Results also suggested significant cultural differences regarding maternal ECVs; Korean Americans were more similar to South Koreans, both scoring higher on ECVs than European Americans. Socioeconomic status, but not maternal ECVs, were associated with children's expressive flexibility, independent of child age, sex, and culture.

Adolescent emotion regulation trajectories: The influence of parent and friend emotion socialization.

With mounting evidence demonstrating the link between child emotion regulation (ER) and emotion socialization, we conducted a longitudinal study to understand (a) emotion-specific trajectories of adolescent ER and (b) how specific parent and friend emotion socialization strategies impact ER over 4 years. Participants were 209 adolescents (52.5% girls; Mage =12.66 years; 75.7% White) and their parents. Latent growth curve models identified unique trajectories for anger and sadness/worry regulation. Anger regulation increased across time, whereas sadness/worry regulation remained highly stable longitudinally, lacking variance for growth modeling. Friend emotion socialization emerged as a more salient predictor of anger regulation than parent emotion socialization. Friend reward, override, and punish responses predicted initial levels. Friend punish and parent magnify responses predicted the slope.

Parental affect profiles predict child emotion regulation and classroom adjustment in families experiencing homelessness

AbstractParenting shapes the development of emotion regulation skills in early childhood, laying a key foundation for social‐emotional adjustment. Unfortunately, high adversity exposure may disrupt parental emotion socialization practices and children's regulatory development. The current study used variable‐ and person‐centered approaches to evaluate links among parental emotion expressiveness, children's observed emotion regulation, and teacher‐reported adjustment among 214 4‐ to 6‐year‐old children experiencing homelessness, an indicator of high cumulative risk and acute adversity. Structured parent‐child interaction tasks were recorded on site in emergency shelters over the summer and micro‐socially coded for parent and child expressions of anger, positive affect, and internalizing distress. We anticipated that parental modeling of predominantly negative emotion expression would be associated with more child dysregulation during parent‐child interaction and worse adjustment at school, as reported by teachers the following school year. Preliminary analyses indicated that children's observed difficulty downregulating anger was associated robustly with teacher‐reported social‐behavioral problems. Latent profile analysis was used to identify three patterns of parental emotion expression characterized by above‐average expression of positive affect, internalizing distress, and anger. Parents’ likelihood of membership in the elevated anger profile significantly predicted children's observed difficulty down‐regulating anger and higher social‐behavioral problems at school. In addition to ongoing efforts to reduce poverty‐related risk, supporting adaptive anger regulation in parents and young children may be important for enhancing resilience among families experiencing homelessness and similar conditions of high cumulative risk.

Commonality and Specificity in Chinese Parental Emotion Socialization and Adolescents' Psychological Functioning: A Bifactor Approach.

Understanding of the conceptual relations among different parental emotion socialization processes (i.e., whether and how they are distinct or share common components) and their developmental implications for adolescents is limited, especially within Asian cultural contexts. Guided by the parental emotion socialization framework, this study aimed to: (1) investigate a conceptual model that delineates general and specific components in parental emotion socialization with both adolescents and parents within a contemporary Asian cultural context-Beijing, China, and (2) examine whether the common and specific processes predicted adolescents' psychological functioning six months later for both informants. Participants included 1486 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 15.11 years; 52.6% males) and their primary caregivers (Mage = 44.93 years; 44.9% males). Both adolescents and parents self-reported on parental emotion socialization and adolescents completed a measure of their psychological functioning at two time-points. We evaluated the fit of one-factor, first-order factor, and bifactor models for both informants separately. Results indicated a good fit of the bifactor model with a proposed general factor of parent meta-emotion philosophy and specific factors of parental reaction and emotional expressivity, with partial factorial invariance of the parental reaction factor across informants. The common and specific factors uniquely predicted adolescents' psychological functioning. Findings inform the parental emotion socialization framework, particularly our conceptual understanding of the different processes with Asian samples, and have practical implications for the design and implementation of comprehensive and culturally relevant parenting interventions in support of adolescent psychological functioning.

Examining the trajectory of parent emotion talk in mothers of toddlers: A predominantly Latine sample

Supportive parent emotion socialization has been associated with greater child emotion understanding and expression and lower levels of externalizing behavior problems, with limited understanding on parent emotion socialization in toddlerhood. The current study examined the developmental trajectory of emotion socialization via emotion talk in mothers of toddlers from a predominantly Latine sample. Participants were 101 mother-toddler dyads assessed over three time points from ages 12–25 months. Overall, maternal emotion talk remained relatively stable over time, although there was a significant decrease between the first and second assessments before returning to initial rates at the third assessment. Maternal emotion talk did not predict child externalizing behavior over time. Interestingly, however, greater toddler externalizing behavior problems was associated with an increase in maternal emotion talk over time. These findings suggest maternal emotion talk is relatively stable for parents of children who are low on externalizing behaviors and may fluctuate (i.e., slowly increase) for mothers of children who are high in externalizing behaviors. Understanding these mechanisms further could help inform how we implement and personalize parenting interventions.

Parent-Child Discrepancies in Perceived Parental Emotion Socialization: Associations with Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Problems in Chinese Families.

Parental emotion socialization is highly associated with children's internalizing and externalizing problems. However, research on parent-child discrepancies in parental emotion socialization perceptions and their relationship with children's developmental outcomes remains limited. This study explores the relationship between parent-child discrepancies in their reports of parental emotion socialization and children's internalizing/externalizing problems in Chinese families. The participants were 390 children (55% girls, Mage = 11.70 years, SDage = 1.17) and their primary caregivers (68% mother, Mage = 39.52 years, SDage = 5.23). A latent profile analysis identified three profiles of parent-child discrepancies in supportive parental emotion socialization and four profiles in non-supportive parental emotion socialization. Children with more negative perceptions of parental emotion socialization than their parents exhibited the most internalizing and externalizing problems. The parent-child perception difference of the supportive dimension connected to internalizing and externalizing problems, while the perception difference of the non-supportive dimension connected only to internalizing problems. These findings advocate for the conceptualization of perceptions of parent-child discrepancies within family dynamics, which may predict children's developmental outcomes.