Parental Emotion Socialization Research Articles

Convergent and divergent parental emotion socialization processes shape children's emotional responding

AbstractParents have an essential role in shaping children's emotional responses, a process called emotional socialization. Typically, researchers measure parental socialization behaviors via self‐report and in‐laboratory observations. However, the extent to which there is convergence between parents’ reported and enacted socialization practices is an open question. The aims of the current study were (1) to quantify the convergence/divergence in parents’ reported and enacted emotional socialization practices and (2) to analyze how convergence/divergence in specific parent socialization practices relates to children's emotional responding across different contexts (alone and with a parent). Participants were a diverse sample of 181 parent‐child dyads (children ages 3–11). We analyzed emotion socialization strategies (problem‐focused reactions, emotion‐focused reactions, expressive encouragement, punishing reactions, minimizing reactions, and distress reactions) as they related to children's behavioral and physiological responding to an emotional challenge. We found an overall pattern of divergence for most socialization strategies, but convergence for problem‐focused reactions. For children's observed distress, a convergent pattern of reported and enacted minimizing specifically was related to more distress while alone. For children's physiological reactivity, enacted problem‐solving was related to greater parasympathetic decreases across social context (from being alone to being with parent). Taken together, our findings suggest that convergence and divergence in parental emotional socialization practices may capture unique variability in how parents contextually respond to children's feelings, and children's emotional responding.

The Tuning in to Kids parenting program delivered online improves emotion socialization and child behavior in a first randomized controlled trial

Emotion-focused parenting interventions have only rarely been evaluated systematically in Europe. This study investigates the effectiveness of “Tuning in to Kids” (TIK) from Australia delivered online in a randomized controlled trial. TIK is a six-week emotion-focused group parenting program that has shown to improve many aspects of parent emotion socialization as well as child problem behavior in several different countries across cultures. Parents (N = 141) of children between 3 and 6 years of age were included in the study and randomly assigned to an intervention and wait-list control group. The intervention was delivered online due to the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2021 (intervention group) and one year later (control group) in Switzerland. Parents’ beliefs about emotions, their reported reactions to the child’s negative emotions, family emotional climate, and child behavior (internalizing and externalizing) improved after the intervention and stayed better until the 6 months follow-up in the intervention group, but not in the wait-list controls. Adherence to the program was very high. This study shows that parent emotion socialization practice is changeable with small effects even on child behavior and even after online delivery. This possibly makes Tuning in to Kids a promising emotion-focused parenting intervention when delivered online as an interactive group webinar.

Maternal and paternal emotion dysregulation profiles: Links to parent and child functioning

This study examined profiles of parental emotion dysregulation among 379 mothers (Mage = 35.99) and 397 fathers (Mage = 34.93) of children aged 8 to 12 using latent profile analyses. Three maternal (Low, Moderate, High Dysregulation) and four paternal (Low, Moderate, High Dysregulation, Emotionally Aware but Extremely Dysregulated) profiles emerged. Low (vs. high) profiles were generally associated with more supportive parental emotion socialization practices, better child emotion regulation, and lower child psychopathology. The Emotionally Aware but Extremely Dysregulated paternal profile was distinct in composition. It was associated with the poorest child psychopathology, but not the poorest child emotion regulation, of all paternal profiles, and with the highest engagement in all socialization practices (e.g., supportive practices). Findings suggest that unique patterns of deficits in parental emotion regulation may play a role in socialization of positive emotion and child functioning, particularly for fathers. These profiles can inform specific emotion-related targets for parent intervention.

A Randomized Controlled Trial of the Effectiveness and Mechanisms of Change in a School-Based Intervention Combining Universal and Indicated Prevention for Preschoolers’ Behavior Problems

ABSTRACT The Social-Emotional Prevention Program (SEP) is a multi-focused intervention combining universal and indicated intervention strategies delivered face-to-face and through the use of technology. The study’s objectives were to assess comparatively SEP effectiveness as a function of preschoolers’ baseline risk of externalizing problems and to evaluate its hypothesized mechanisms of action. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted with five schools assigned to either the intervention or to a comparison condition (wait-list control). Structural equation models (SEM) and complier average causal effects (CACE) were conducted to evaluate program effectiveness and mechanisms of change. Research Findings: SEP participation was associated with improved social-emotional competence irrespective of baseline risk and at-risk preschoolers were more likely to exhibit reductions in externalizing problems. However, perceptions about which risk group benefited more varied as a function of rater. Patterns for SEP mechanisms of action suggest that these were similar across risk status with both child emotion regulation and parental emotion socialization practices emerging as paths to improved social-emotional competencies. Practice and Policy: The present findings add to the extant evidence suggesting that multi-focused programs combining universal and indicated prevention strategies could be successfully delivered in schools to promote social-emotional learning.

Resting heart rate moderates the relationship between parental emotion socialization and callous-unemotional traits in children.

Although empirical findings have indicated that both familial and neurobiological risk factors contribute to the development of callous-unemotional (CU) traits in children, relatively few studies have investigated how these two factors interact to influence these traits. The current study focused on the combined effects of parental emotion socialization and child's resting heart rate on CU traits. Parents of Chinese children (N = 166) completed the Coping with Children's Negative Scale when children were 9.39years old (SD = 0.92), while children's resting heart rate data were collected when they were 10.21years old (SD = 0.72). When they were 11.15years old (SD = 0.67), parents completed the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits Short-Form. Results showed that parental supportive emotion socialization was negatively associated with CU traits and Callous behaviors in particular. In addition, resting heart rate moderated the relationship between parental emotion socialization and child's CU traits. Findings provide further evidence that an interdisciplinary approach that combines both psychosocial and biological factors is essential to further our understanding of CU traits in youth.

Being sensitive in their own way: parental ethnotheories of caregiver sensitivity and child emotion regulation across five countries.

Caregiver sensitivity builds a basis for children's sense of security and effective emotion regulation during their development. Applying a cross-cultural lens, caregiver sensitivity can be divided into two subtypes, reactive and proactive, and its prevalence and meaning may differ across cultures. Guided by the theoretical frameworks of developmental niche and parental ethnotheories, the current study examines culture-specific meanings of caregiver sensitivity across five countries: India, Nepal, Korea, the United States of America (USA), and Germany. We examine the prevalence of maternal reactive and proactive sensitivity, children's emotional lability and regulation, and how mothers' sensitivity types are related to children's emotional characteristics. Participants included 472 mothers from the five countries with children aged between 6 and 7 years. Mothers reported their sensitivity preference in multiple vignettes and completed an emotion regulation checklist to report their children's emotional lability and regulation. A set of analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) found cultural differences in mothers' preference for proactive and reactive sensitivity. Mothers in India and Nepal reported the highest preference for proactive sensitivity followed by Korea and the USA, while German mothers reported the lowest preference for proactive sensitivity. Consequent regression analyses revealed varying associations between proactive sensitivity and child emotional characteristics in all five countries either directly or as moderated by child sex. These results evidence that parental ethnotheories are part of the developmental niche embedded in a larger cultural context. Findings on the differential links between the types of sensitivity and child emotion regulation provide cultural models of parental emotion socialization and children's emotional functioning.

Parent-adolescent Congruence and Discrepancy in Perceived Parental Emotion Socialization to Anger and Sadness: Using Response Surface Analysis to Examine the Links with Adolescent Depressive Symptoms.

Parents and adolescents often hold discrepant perceptions of parental emotion socialization, which reflect misunderstandings in parent-adolescent communication on emotions and have potential detrimental effects on mental health of adolescents. The present study investigated the associations between parent-adolescent congruence and discrepancy in parental emotion socialization perception to two specific negative emotions (anger and sadness) and depressive symptoms in Chinese adolescents. A total of 372 adolescents (48.4% female, Mage = 13.43, SDage = 0.49) and their parents (79.6% mother, Mage = 41.15, SDage = 5.46) participated in this study. Both parents and adolescents reported perceived parental emotion socialization to anger and sadness, and adolescents reported depressive symptoms. Data were analyzed using polynomial regression and response surface analyses. Both congruence and discrepancy in parent and adolescent's reports were associated with adolescent depressive symptoms. A higher level of adolescent depressive symptoms was associated with higher parent-adolescent congruence in supportive responses to anger, sadness, and nonsupportive responses to anger. A higher level of depressive symptoms was associated with inconsistent reporting of supportive responses to sadness and nonsupportive responses to anger (only when parents had a more positive view than adolescents). This study highlights the significance of evaluating parent-child communication process by assessing perceived emotion socialization from both parents and adolescents and analyzing the reporting congruence and discrepancy. It also suggests that enhancing effective communication regarding parental emotion socialization could be a promising target for adolescent mental health promotion programs.

Maternal supportive responses to adolescents' negative emotions serve as protective factors for adolescents' hostile attribution bias longitudinally.

Existing literature has documented that parenting links to children's hostile attribution biases (HAB). However, little is known about the role played by parental emotion socialization in children's HAB. To address this research gap, the present study investigated the role of parental responses to children's negative emotions (PRCNE) in predicting adolescents' HAB using a longitudinal study. Adolescents (N = 203; Mage = 13.61 years old at Time 1), who were recruited from a city in mainland China, reported on their mothers' PRCNE and their own HAB at two waves over a year. The results showed that mothers' supportive responses (composed of emotion-focused responses and problem-focused responses) significantly predicted adolescents' reduced HAB over time; however, PRCNE including expressive encouragement, minimization, and nonsupportive responses (composed of punitive responses and parental distress) had no significant relation with adolescents' HAB. These findings add to the existing literature investigating antecedents to adolescents' social information processing deficits and biases.

Do Emotion Regulation Strategies Mediate the Relationship of Parental Emotion Socialization with Adolescent and Emerging Adult Psychological Distress?

A child's ability to cope with stress is shaped by experiences in a parent-child relationship. In this study, the direct effect of a parent's response to anger and happiness in childhood on adolescents' and emerging adults' psychological distress and the indirect effect through the mediating role of emotion regulation strategies-specifically, cognitive reappraisal and emotional suppression-were measured. To achieve our research aim, we tested four parallel mediation models using the bootstrapping method. A group of 497 participants aged between 14 and 35 years (M = 18.62; SD = 3.32), 66% female (n = 332) and 34% male (n = 165), completed a questionnaire comprising self-reporting measures. The results indicate direct effects between emotion socialization and distress for seven independent variables. The mother's and father's positive responses to anger and happiness are significant negative predictors of distress; the negative responses of both parents to happiness, and the mother's negative response to anger-but not the father's-are significant positive predictors of distress. The findings also provide support for the mediating role of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal for the mother's positive response to both anger and happiness, as well as for the mother's negative response to the child's expression of happiness. None of the father's responses-positive or negative, in relation to anger or happiness-are mediated by emotion regulation strategies in relation to distress. Our findings have practical implication for a preventative intervention program focused on the psychological growth of adolescents by adaptative emotional responses.

Emotion socialization profiles in military parents: Associations with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Military families face many difficulties, including a parent deploying to a warzone and the subsequent risk of returning with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Symptoms of PTSD are associated with parenting difficulties; however, little is known about how PTSD symptoms may be associated with emotion socialization (ES), a set of processes crucial to children's emotional well-being. This project investigated observed ES behaviors in deployed and non-deployed parents in a sample of 224 predominantly White, non-Hispanic National Guard/Reserve (NG/R) families with deployed fathers, non-deployed mothers, and a child between the ages of 4 and 13. Parents completed self-report questionnaires and families engaged in videotaped parent-child discussions, which were coded for three types of ES behaviors. Latent profile analyses of the coded behaviors identified five profiles of parental ES: Balanced/Supportive, Balanced/Limited Expression, Unsupportive/Distressed, Unsupportive/Positive, and Involved/Emotive/Angry. Multinomial logistic regressions of each parent's profile membership on fathers' PTSD symptoms revealed no significant associations, while additional analyses including additional family factors revealed that greater father PTSD symptoms were associated with a greater likelihood of mothers being in the Balanced/Supportive profile compared to the Balanced/Limited Expression profile, particularly when children displayed average to low levels of emotion during discussion tasks. No other significant associations with PTSD symptoms were detected. Overall, in contrast to the hypotheses, the majority of these findings indicated that PTSD symptoms did not play a significant role in parental ES behaviors.

Development and validation of a scale assessing parental varied responses to Chinese adolescents' negative emotions.

Parental responses to children's negative emotions (PRCNE) constitute a critical construct in the study of emotion socialization in children and adolescents. The objective of this research was to develop and validate a concise scale for assessing how adolescents perceive PRCNE in a Chinese context, resulting in the creation of the parental varied responses to Chinese adolescents' negative emotions (PVRCANE) scale. The PVRCANE aims to evaluate seven forms of PRCNE, including the six types encompassed by the commonly used Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale-Adolescent Version (CCNES-AV), as well as an additional, culturally specific category frequently seen in Chinese families: didactic talk and teaching. In Study 1, a group of participants (N = 901, Mage = 13.39 years, SD = 0.92) completed the initial PVRCANE and the CCNES-Adolescent Version. In Study 2: A separate group of participants (N = 320, Mage = 13.54 years, SD = 0.57) filled in PVRCANE and scales evaluating parental socialization goals and adolescents' depressive symptoms. In Study 1, factor analyses showed that a four-factor structure best fit the data, leading to the final version of the PVRCANE, which includes 35 items. PVRCANE scores exhibited good internal consistency (Omega > 0.79) and convergent validity, demonstrated by their close correlation with traditional CCNES scores. Study 2 confirmed the PVRCANE's measurement invariance for both male and female parents and demonstrated criterion validity by showing significant relationships between PVRCANE scores, parental socialization goals, and adolescents' symptoms of depression. The PVRCANE is a brief, valid, and reliable scale for assessing PRCNE in Chinese adolescents. The study concludes with a discussion on future directions and how this research enhances the existing literature on emotion socialization, with a particular emphasis on the scale's potential application in other cultural settings.

Profiles of parents' emotion socialization within a multinational sample of parents.

Seminal emotion socialization theories classify parents according to two patterns of parent emotion socialization processes: 'emotion coaching' (i.e., parents validate and teach children about emotions) versus 'emotion dismissing' parenting (i.e., parents minimize and dismiss their children's emotions). However, empirical evidence supporting this binary distinction of parents remains limited. Our objective was to investigate whether parents can be differentiated by distinct patterns in their (1) beliefs about children's emotions, (2) emotion regulation, and (3) emotion-related parenting practices. Participants were parents of children aged 4-10 years from the Child and Parent Emotion Study (N = 869) (https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/10/10/e038124). Parents completed self-reported measures of emotion socialization processes via an online survey, which took 20-30 min to complete. Data included in the current study were collected May-August 2019. We conducted a latent profile analysis of parents' emotion socialization (13 indicators). To assess reliability of the profiles, we examined stability of the profiles across (1) parents of children in early versus middle childhood, and (2) fathers versus mothers, via measurement invariance testing. Further, to assess for construct validity of the profiles, we examined concurrent associations between six criterion constructs and parents' emotion socialization profiles. A three-profile model emerged characterizing parents by: (1) emotion coaching; (2) emotion dismissing; (3) emotion disengaged. There was strong support for construct validity and reliability. Our study provides empirical support for distinct differentiated classifications of emotion coaching and emotion dismissing parenting, aligned with emotion socialization theories. We further extend on extant theory and suggest a third 'emotion disengaged' classification, describing parents with moderate levels of emotion dismissing parenting and low levels of emotion coaching parenting. It should be noted that the profiles were derived with self-report data, therefore, data may have been biased by contextual factors. Furthermore, the study sample consisted of Western families from affluent backgrounds. The field should focus efforts on conducting person-centered studies with more diverse samples in future.

Differential associations and concordance across measures of parent emotion socialization: The role of parent and adolescent emotion dysregulation

AbstractAlthough parent ratings, adolescent ratings, and observations are all utilized to measure parent emotion socialization during adolescence, there is a lack of research examining measurement differences and concordance. Thus, the present study compared three measures of parent supportive and nonsupportive emotion socialization and examined whether parent and adolescent emotion dysregulation differentially related to these measures or moderated concordance across measures. Participants were a community sample of 92 adolescent‐parent dyads. Adolescents were 13–17 years‐old (M = 15.5, SD = 1.1), 41 were female and 51 were male; 87% of parents identified as mothers. Observed emotion socialization was coded during a parent‐adolescent conflict discussion task. The adolescent and parent also rated the parent's supportive and nonsupportive reactions to the adolescent's negative emotions; they each also rated their own emotion dysregulation. Due to data collection timing, COVID‐19 family stress was also assessed and explored as a covariate in analyses. Bivariate correlations indicated that there were weak and non‐significant correlations across emotion socialization measures. Multilevel models indicated that measures of parent emotion socialization were differentially associated with adolescent emotion dysregulation, with adolescent emotion dysregulation relating significantly to adolescent ratings, but not observations or parent ratings, of parent emotion socialization. In addition, multiple regressions indicated that there was less concordance across measures when parents were higher in emotion dysregulation. Results suggest that measurement may influence researchers’ conclusions about how youth adjustment relates to parent emotion socialization. Additionally, there may be even lower agreement across measures of parent emotion socialization when parents have emotional challenges.

Maternal and paternal emotion socialization relates to adolescent self-compassion

Parent emotion socialization contributes to youth socioemotional adjustment and is an important consideration for prevention and intervention efforts. Extant research posits that parental emotion socialization influences youth mental health through child-level factors, such as how youth process and manage their emotions. Self-compassion is a protective factor for youth mental health, but the role of parents in youth self-compassion is unclear. Moreover, there is relatively limited research on maternal and paternal emotion socialization in adolescence. The present study examined associations of maternal and paternal emotion socialization with adolescent self-compassion. Adolescents (N = 165, 33% female, M = 14.56 years, SD = 1.34) and their parents completed questionnaires as part of an online survey. Parents’ validation and comfort responses to negative emotions were associated with higher adolescent self-compassion. Parents’ punishment and reciprocation of adolescents’ negative emotions were associated with lower adolescent self-compassion. Similar findings were present for mothers and fathers. Supporting parent-child communication about emotions may be relevant for youth exercising more self-compassion, providing important directions for prevention and intervention efforts.

Corrigendum to “[Parental Emotion Socialization, Emotion Regulation and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Adolescence: The Role of Family Cohesion

Corrigendum to “[Parental Emotion Socialization, Emotion Regulation and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Adolescence: The Role of Family Cohesion

Parental Emotion Socialization, Emotion Regulation and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Adolescence: The Role of Family Cohesion

This study explored the effect of parental emotion socialization behavior (ESB) on depressive symptoms with a focus on the mediating effect of emotion regulation and the moderating role of family cohesion. A total of 236 Chinese adolescents were surveyed and reported on parental ESB, family cohesion, emotion dysregulation, and depressive symptoms. The results indicated that parental ESB toward negative emotions was associated with adolescents’ depressive symptoms, as mediated by emotion dysregulation. Moreover, higher levels of family cohesion both enhanced the negative relationships between supportive ESB toward anger/sadness and emotion dysregulation and strengthened the positive relationship between non-supportive parental ESB toward sadness and emotion dysregulation. These findings clarify the interactive effects of multiple components of emotional parenting, reveal the double-edged effects of family cohesion in the association between parental ESB and depressive symptoms in adolescents, and highlight the importance of evaluating the family emotional context in research and clinical interventions.

Assessing the effectiveness and the mechanisms of the Social-Emotional Prevention Program for Preschoolers: Findings from a universal school-based intervention

The Social-Emotional Prevention Program (SEP) encompasses a multifaceted approach (classroom curriculum, with teacher and parent training) intended to increase preschool children's social adjustment, as well as to reduce risk of emotional and behavioral problems. The present study's focus was on implementing the technology-assisted SEP version and was aimed at (a) investigating the program's effectiveness on children's social-emotional competencies and parental practices, as well as (b) testing the program's conceptual framework, with an emphasis on children's emotion regulation (ER) skills and parental emotion socialization practices as explanatory intervention mechanisms. A randomized-controlled trial (RCT) was conducted with five schools assigned to either the intervention or to a comparison condition (wait-list control). Structural equation models (SEM) and complier average causal effects (CACE) were conducted to evaluate SEP effectiveness on teacher- and parent-rated child outcomes (primary outcomes) and parenting behaviors (secondary outcomes). Findings from the present study indicated that (a) SEP fosters increased social-emotional competencies and increased use of adaptive ER strategies, with teacher and parent ratings converging to support these outcomes; (b) parental participation in the program increased the use of reappraisal and emotion coaching strategies; and (c) children's ER mediated the intervention's effect on social competence, whereas parental coaching and parental ER mediated SEP effects on children's ER. This study's findings suggest that the SEP may be an effective universal intervention for promoting preschoolers' social-emotional competence and may provide emerging evidence to support the program's hypothesized mechanisms of change.

The role of parent and peer emotion socialization and emotion regulation in the development of internalizing problems in adolescents

Adolescence is a dynamic period for the development of emotion regulation skills. Difficulties in emotion regulation are an important predictor of risk for internalizing problems. Parents and peers play an important role in both emotion regulation (ER) skills and the development of internalizing problems, however, few studies have examined their influence concurrently using longitudinal data. This study investigated the impact of parent and peer emotion socialization and adolescent ER on adolescent (N = 213; aged 13 to 14 years old) internalizing problems 11 months later, as reported by adolescents. Results indicated peer but not parent emotion socialization predicted adolescent internalizing problems. Moreover, adolescent difficulties in ER at baseline moderated the impact of peer emotion socialization on adolescent internalizing problems. The findings highlight peer emotion dismissing responses impact internalizing problems, especially if adolescents also report difficulties in ER, underscoring the importance of prevention during earlier developmental periods.

Profiles of parent emotion socialization: Longitudinal associations with child emotional outcomes

BackgroundFew studies within the field of emotion socialization have used a person-centered approach to investigate how supportive or unsupportive parent subpopulations influence child development over time. Furthermore, the role of parents’ emotion socialization processes at different child developmental stages remains understudied. ObjectivesThe current study tests whether parent profiles of emotion socialization are associated with concurrent and long-term child mental health problems and emotion competence, and whether associations differ for parents of children in early (4-6 years) versus middle childhood (7-10 years). MethodThree waves of annual data were drawn from the Child and Parent Emotion Study, a longitudinal study of multinational families (n = 869). We drew on previously derived profiles from a latent profile analysis describing ‘emotion coaching’, ‘emotion dismissing’, and ‘emotion disengaged’ profiles of parent emotion socialization. Linear regression models tested associations between parent profiles (assessed in 2019) and child internalizing and externalizing problems, negative affect, and child emotion regulation, assessed 0, 1, and 2 years later (2019-21). ResultsEmotion dismissing (versus emotion coaching) was associated with higher concurrent child internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and negative affect; and longitudinally with higher internalizing problems and negative affect, and lower emotion regulation. Emotion disengaged (versus emotion coaching) was associated with higher concurrent and longitudinal child negative affect, and lower longitudinal emotion regulation. Split by child age, we found stronger associations in early compared to middle childhood for emotion dismissing and child externalizing problems. The reverse was evident for emotion disengaged, where associations were stronger/more evident in middle compared to early childhood for child negative affect and emotion regulation. Other associations were no longer evident or were consistent across child ages. ConclusionChildren of parents who have a pattern of emotion dismissing or emotion disengaged emotion socialization are at greater risk for mental health problems and lower emotion competence.

Maternal socialization of emotion and the development of emotion regulation in early adolescent girls.

Regulation of negative emotions is a core competency of child development. Parental emotion socialization profoundly influences later capacity to regulate negative affect in childhood and adolescence. The present study examined the effects of maternal emotion socialization on the development of emotion regulation in the context of a longitudinal study of 210 mother-daughter dyads. Dyads completed a conflict resolution task when the child was age 11 years during which maternal warmth and hostility were coded. At ages 11 to 13 years, mothers completed self-report measures of supportive and nonsupportive responses to child negative emotion, and children completed self-reports of inhibition and adaptive regulation of sadness and anger. We used latent growth curve modeling to estimate changes in inhibition and adaptive regulation of sadness and anger over time; observed maternal warmth and hostility were included as time-invariant covariates and maternal self-report of supportive and nonsupportive responses were included as time-varying covariates. Observed maternal warmth was positively associated with girls' adaptive regulation of anger and sadness at age 11 years. Maternal self-reported supportive responses to girls' negative affect were positively associated with girls' adaptive regulation of anger, and nonsupportive responses were negatively associated with adaptive regulation of anger and sadness. These findings support the role of maternal emotion socialization and indicate specific effects of maternal warmth and supportive responses in the development of girls' capacity to modulate negative emotions during early adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).