Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale Research Articles

Do Trajectories of Sensation Seeking Vary by Sex and Child Maltreatment Subtypes?

Child maltreatment and elevated sensation seeking are associated with a wide range of negative outcomes. Longitudinal data from a study of Puerto Ricans living in two sociocultural contexts were used to determine whether child maltreatment subtypes, sex, or sociocultural context relate to trajectories of sensation seeking. Participants were 2,489 individuals from the Boricua Youth Study (48.5% girls) living in New York and in Puerto Rico (PR; 5-15 years old at Wave 1). Subtypes of child maltreatment were measured using child report on the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale and the Sexual Victimization Scale at Wave 1. The association between child maltreatment subtypes, sex, sociocultural context, and previously established sensation-seeking trajectories across three waves of data collection was probed using multinomial logistic regression. Girls, but not boys, who experienced neglect (adjusted odds ratio; AOR; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 5.33 [1.35, 21.03]), or physical abuse (AOR [95% CI] = 3.66 [1.07, 12.54]), were more likely to have an elevated sensation-seeking trajectory than a normative trajectory. For boys, none of the maltreatment subtypes were linked to the elevated sensation-seeking class. Girls exposed to verbal abuse (AOR [95% CI] = 0.33 [0.15, 0.75]) and boys exposed to physical abuse (AOR [95% CI] = 0.39 [0.16, 0.97]) were less likely to belong to the low sensation-seeking class. No significant interactions between sociocultural context (i.e., PR vs. New York) and maltreatment subtype on the development of sensation seeking were found. This research suggests sensation-seeking levels vary by experiences of childhood maltreatment, and that sex moderates the relationship between child maltreatment experiences and sensation seeking, with an association between some maltreatment subtypes and elevated sensation-seeking trajectories found in girls, but not boys. These results underline the importance of considering sex when examining how child maltreatment relates to outcomes.

Parental Corporal Punishment and Girls’ Self-Esteem: The Moderating Effects of Girls’ Agency and Communion in China

The current study aimed to examine the moderating effects of girls’ agency and communion in the links between both fathers’ and mothers’ corporal punishment and girls’ self-esteem in China. Chinese girls (n = 302) enrolled in grades 4–8 were instructed to independently complete the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC), the Children’s Sex Role Inventory (CSRI), the Global Self-Worth subscale of Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC), and demographic items. Results indicated that both fathers’ and mothers’ corporal punishment were not directly associated with girls’ self-esteem, whereas both agency and communion were positively associated with girls’ self-esteem. In addition, both fathers’ and mothers’ corporal punishment were significantly and negatively associated with self-esteem for girls with lower levels of agency but not for the girls with higher levels of agency. The current results extend the growing evidence against using corporal punishment as a child-rearing practice and highlight that intervention programs need to focus on eliminating, or at least decreasing, both mothers’ and fathers’ corporal punishment. Additionally, parents and educators need to move from the traditional gender-related attributes to encourage the development of both agency and communion in girls.

Relationships Among Childhood Maltreatment, Limbic System Dysfunction, and Eating Disorders in College Women.

The mechanisms linking childhood maltreatment and eating pathology are not fully understood. We examined the mediating role of limbic system dysfunction in the relationships between three forms of childhood maltreatment (parental psychological maltreatment, parental physical maltreatment, and parental emotional neglect) and eating disorder symptoms. A convenience sample of college women (N = 246, M age = 19.62, SD = 2.41) completed measures of maltreatment (Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales and the Parental Bonding Instrument), limbic system dysfunction (Limbic System Questionnaire), and eating pathology (Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire). We hypothesized that there would be an indirect effect of each type of childhood maltreatment on eating disorder symptoms via limbic system irritability. Results generally supported the hypotheses. Examination of the individual paths that defined the indirect effect indicated that higher reported childhood maltreatment was associated with greater limbic irritability symptoms, and higher limbic irritability symptomatology was related to higher total eating disorder scores. There were no significant direct effects for any of the proposed models. Findings are in line with research supporting the role of limbic system dysfunction as a possible pathway in the maltreatment-eating disorder link. Given that limbic system dysfunction may underlie behavioral symptoms of eating disorders, efforts targeting limbic system dysfunction associated with child maltreatment might best be undertaken at an early developmental stage, although interventions for college women struggling with eating disorders are also crucial.

Child Maltreatment and Quality of Life Among Urban Chinese Children.

Child maltreatment is an international public health problem. The aftermath can appear in multiple aspects of individual health and development, including decreased physical and emotional function, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and suicide attempts. However, there is lack of evidence regarding the quality of life of maltreated children. This study aims to examine the association between children's maltreatment experience and their quality of life. This study employed a cross-sectional design and surveyed 1,093 primary school children (including migrant children and nonmigrant children) in Shanghai, China. The Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC) and Pediatrics Quality of Life Inventory were used to measure children's experiences of child maltreatment and their quality of life. Corporal punishment (89.47%) was the most prevalent form of child maltreatment, followed by physical assault (80.21%), psychological abuse (65.00%), and neglect (52.26%). Children's migration status was not associated with their quality of life; however, social capital factors were all associated with increased levels of quality of life. Children's victimization experience, including severe to very severe physical assault (β = -3.34/-3.80, p < .001), psychological assault (β = -3.74, p < .001), corporal punishment (β = -2.46, p < .01), and neglect (β = -4.31, p < .001), was associated with their decreased quality of life. The results show that child maltreatment threatens the quality of life of children. There is a need for developing effective interventions to prevent child maltreatment and reduce the adverse outcomes among children with maltreatment experiences.

Self-reporting DSM-5/ICD-11 clinically significant intimate partner violence and child abuse: Convergent and response process validity.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and International Classification of Diseases-11th Revision (ICD-11; proposed) now include criteria for clinically significant (a) intimate partner violence (IPV) and neglect and (b) child abuse and neglect. However, existing measures of IPV and child abuse do not allow for assessment of established criteria. The current study examines the convergent and response process validity of the Family Maltreatment (FM) measure of clinically significant physical and psychological IPV and child abuse. Participants (N = 126) completed the FM via computer and measures of IPV (Revised Conflict Tactics Scale; Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996) and child abuse (Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale; Straus, Hamby, Finkelhor, Moore, & Runyan, 1998) via paper-and-pencil. Participants who endorsed acts of aggression on the FM completed an audio-recorded computerized interview recounting the 2 most severe incidents. Verbalized incidents (n = 138) were coded for clinically significant family maltreatment. Results largely supported the convergent validity of the FM. Agreement of acts endorsed on the FM with those endorsed on convergent measures was excellent for IPV and physical child abuse, yet poor for psychological child abuse. Further, in support of the response process validity of the FM, comparison with observer ratings of interviews indicated few "false positives" and no "false negatives" on the FM across the examined types of clinically significant IPV and child abuse. In summary, the FM is a promising measure for the assessment of clinically significant physical and psychological abuse as defined in the DSM-5 and ICD-11 (proposed). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Prevalence, Severity and Chronicity of Corporal Punishment in Colombian Families

Colombia is one of the countries where corporal punishment (CP) is not yet banned. This study aims to contribute to the understanding of CP in Colombia with respect to prevalence, severity and chronicity. We used the Spanish version of the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scale to assess 853 parental reports on the use of CP against their children in the four major cities of the country: Barranquilla, Bogotá, Medellin and Cali. Analyses of variances and logistic regressions were performed. Socio‐demographic variables that are predictors of the use of CP are parental age, the number of children in the household and age of the children. The results indicated a high rate of prevalence (77%) but low levels of severity and chronicity, as reported by Colombian parents. Our findings suggest that CP is a normalised practice, which might be linked to direct or indirect exposure to the long‐lasting armed conflict (more than 50 years) that the country endured. Recommendations for social policies are presented, particularly the design and implementation of locally relevant interventions for the prevention of this practice.‘This study aims to contribute to the understanding of CP [corporal punishment] in Colombia with respect to prevalence, severity and chronicity’Key Practitioner Messages There is a high prevalence of CP in Colombia but low levels of severity and chronicity. Socio‐demographic variables such as parental age and the number of children in the household are predictors of the prevalence of CP but not of its chronicity or severity. The use of CP might be related to the armed conflict that the country endured for the last 50 years. It is important to address the prevention of CP to promote a peaceful society.

Violence between Different Members in the Family System: A Household Survey in a Brazilian City

Objective: To investigate the associations between different types of violence within the family. Method: A household survey of a representative sample of adult women in two neighborhoods with different social–economic profiles in a Brazilian city. Data in respect of intimate partner violence (using the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales) and violence against children (using the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scales) were collected. Results: We interviewed 905 women, 532 of whom were in an intimate relationship and 446 had children. Bivariate logistic regression models indicated that women victims of some type of violence had higher odds (OR:62.5 CI:27.3–143.2) of abusing their partners. Moreover, both women being violent toward their partners and being victims of violence were associated with a greater chance of them abusing their children. Conclusion: The data highlight the circularity of violent relationships and, therefore, the importance of preventive and therapeutic strategies targeted toward the whole family rather than toward individuals.

Association of Childhood Abuse with Incident Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in Adulthood in a Longitudinal Cohort of Women.

Exposure to severe stressors may alter immune function and augment inflammation and cytokine release, increasing risk of autoimmune disease. We examined whether childhood abuse was associated with a heightened risk of incident systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Data were drawn from the Nurses' Health Study II, a cohort of US female nurses enrolled in 1989, followed with biennial questionnaires. We measured childhood physical and emotional abuse with the Physical and Emotional Abuse Subscale of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and sexual abuse with the Sexual Maltreatment Scale of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale, both administered in 2001. We identified incident SLE (≥ 4 American College of Rheumatology 1997 classification criteria) through 2015. We used multivariable Cox regression models to evaluate the association between childhood abuse and SLE, accounting for potential confounders (e.g., parental education, occupation, home ownership) and mediators [e.g., depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)]. Among 67,516 women, there were 94 cases of incident SLE. In adjusted models, exposure to the highest versus lowest physical and emotional abuse was associated with 2.57 times greater risk of SLE (95% CI 1.30-5.12). We found that 17% (p < 0.0001) of SLE risk associated with abuse could be explained by depression and 23% (p < 0.0001) by PTSD. We did not observe a statistically significant association with sexual abuse (HR 0.84, 95% CI 0.40-1.77, highest vs lowest exposure). We observed significantly increased risk of SLE among women who had experienced childhood physical and emotional abuse compared with women who had not. Exposure to childhood adversity may contribute to development of SLE.

Psychopathological mechanisms of early neglect and abuse on suicidal ideation and self-harm in middle childhood

Informed by diathesis-stress models of suicide risk, this longitudinal study examines the psychopathological mechanisms through which early maltreatment increases the risk for suicidal ideation and self-harm in middle childhood. The sample included 2958 families from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, who participated in interviews at child's ages of 3 and/or 5, and 9. Via the Child Behavior Checklist, primary caregivers reported on the child's suicidal ideation and self-harm at age 9 and on clinically elevated depressive/anxious symptoms, aggressive behaviors, attention problems, and comorbid aggression and depressive/anxious symptoms at age 5. Past year neglect and physical/psychological abuse were measured via the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale at age 3. Multivariate structural equation models indicated that early neglect had a significant indirect effect on suicidal ideation via clinically elevated depressive/anxious symptoms (OR = 1.57, 95% CI 1.09-2.25) and comorbid symptomatology (OR = 1.28, 95% CI 1.02-1.62), and on self-harm also via clinically elevated depressive/anxious symptoms (OR = 1.39, 95% CI 1.04-1.84) and comorbid symptomatology (OR = 1.20, 95% CI 1.01-1.43). Early physical/psychological abuse had a significant indirect effect on self-harm via clinically elevated attention problems (OR = 1.09, 95% CI 1.01-1.21). Unique developmental pathways for suicidal ideation and self-harm emerged among children exposed to abuse or neglect. For those exposed to early neglect, interventions should target depressive/anxious symptoms, especially when comorbid with aggression, to prevent suicidal ideation and self-harm. For children exposed to early physical/psychological abuse, problems with attention and impulsivity may be targets for reducing the risk for self-harm.

Parental corporal punishment and children's problem behaviors: The moderating effects of parental inductive reasoning in China

Previous research has linked parental corporal punishment and children's problem behaviors, whereas little is known about the effects of fathers' corporal punishment. Moreover, stress-buffering model suggested that parenting practices that are characterized by acceptance, supportive and responsiveness such as inductive reasoning may buffer children against the negative impacts of stressful life events including parental corporal punishment. As such, the current research examined the potential moderating effects of fathers' and mothers' inductive reasoning on the associations between their corporal punishment and children's problem behaviors, and further explored whether the moderating effects of inductive reasoning would be more stronger in same gender dyads (i.e., mother & daughter, father & son) than in mixed gender dyads (i.e., mother & son, father & daughter) within Chinese families. The Chinese version of Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC), the parental inductive reasoning items from the Iowa Youth and Families Project, the Youth Self-Report (YSR) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) were used as the main assessment tools. Utilizing a sample of 675 elementary school-age children and their parents, similar patterns of findings between same gender dyads and mixed gender dyads emerged. Both mothers' and fathers' corporal punishment were directly associated with children's problem behaviors, whereas their inductive reasoning failed to moderate these associations. Findings from the current study suggested that it may be difficult for positive parenting (e.g., inductive reasoning) to counteract the adverse effects that parental harsh discipline (e.g., corporal punishment) has on children adjustment, and it may be more meaningful for intervention programs to focus on decreasing both fathers' and mothers' harsh discipline.

Coexistence of Intimate Partner Violence and Child Maltreatment among Adolescents in Kosovo

High levels of domestic and intimate partner violence are continuously reported in Kosovo, and child maltreatment by parents is common. This study explores the coexistence of intimate partner violence and child maltreatment and its association with sociodemographic factors. A sample of 208 Kosovar adolescents was assessed using the Conflict Tactic Scale and the Parent-Child Conflict Tactic Scale. The results showed interplay between experiencing intimate partner violence and witnessing violence between parents. The hierarchical logistic regression results showed that adolescents exposed to psychological intimate partner violence had a higher chance of experiencing psychological aggression and corporal punishment by their parents, when controlling for sociodemographic factors (gender, average grades, parents’ education, number of sisters/brothers, and financial income). The findings foresee the necessity of comprehensive approaches to family violence phenomena that affect family members, including parents and children. They indicate the importance of considering poly-victimization in the assessment and prioritization of such cases.

Attributions of Conflict: Impact on the Relation between Parental Physical Maltreatment and Emotion Regulation Difficulties

ABSTRACTStudies have revealed that childhood physical maltreatment is a risk factor for emotion regulation difficulties; however, less is known about the underlying processes that may mediate or moderate this relation. This study examined the mediating effect of blame attribution and moderating effect of gender in the relation between physical maltreatment and emotion regulation difficulties. A total of 415 undergraduate students (89 males and 326 females) who ranged in ages from 18 to 25 years were recruited for the study. Participants completed the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scale, Child Relationship Attribution Measure, and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Results showed that blame mediated the relation between parental physical maltreatment and emotion regulation difficulties. However, gender did not moderate the effect of physical maltreatment and blame. Gender also did not moderate the mediating effect of blame in the relation between physical maltreatment and emotion regulation difficulties. The present study can contribute to a better understanding of how physical maltreatment is associated with emotion regulation difficulties. Our results suggest that attributions of conflict may be a worthwhile target of intervention for both genders.

Assessing psychological and physical abuse from children's perspective: Factor structure and psychometric properties of the picture-based, modularized child-report version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale - Revised (CTSPC-R).

Child victims’ reports of psychological and physical abuse by caregivers are a fundamental source of information beyond official records and caregiver reports. However, few or no sensitive and age-appropriate child-report instruments exist that have undergone in-depth validity and reliability testing across a broad age-range. Our study addresses this gap by examining psychometric properties of a picture-based, modularized version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC-R), encompassing the maltreatment subtypes of psychological and physical abuse. A sample of 904 children and adolescents aged 4–16 years from the community (n = 568), child psychiatric services (n = 159), and from Child Protective Services (CPS; n = 177) completed the CTSPC-R. Measures to test convergent (maltreatment in parent interviews and CPS records) and concurrent validity (psychiatric symptoms) were collected. The CTSPC-R comprises 22 items, arranged in three severity modules by increasing level of psychological and physical abuse by caregivers. Companion picture cards were provided for children aged 4 and 8 years. The best fit to the data was attained with a second-order factor model, assuming three inter-correlated factors corresponding to the three severity modules, and a latent second-order factor representing combined physical and psychological abuse. The three factors showed good internal consistencies. Supporting convergent validity at the global and subtype-level of maltreatment, the CTSPC-R severity scale was associated with lifetime CPS-contact, presence of caregiver-reported emotional maltreatment and physical abuse, and dimensions of chronicity and severity. Discriminant validity was supported by non-significant correlations with caregiver-reported lack of supervision, failure to provide, and sexual abuse. Bolstering concurrent validity, moderate and severe physical abuse predicted caregiver-reported internalizing and externalizing symptoms. These effects were independent of child age, gender or community vs. non-community samples. Our study supports the CTSPC-R as a scientifically and clinically sound tool for ascertaining the child’s own perspective on psychological and physical abuse from an early age onwards.

Adaptation et validation francophone d’un questionnaire sur les conduites parentales à caractère violent (PC-CTS)

IntroductionThe Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus et al., 1998) is the most commonly used instrument to document violence against children in the general population. It was translated into French and adapted to be used in several population-based surveys over the past 15 years. ObjectiveThis study aims at verifying the internal consistency and the factorial structure of the three subscales pertaining to violent behaviors (psychological aggression, minor physical violence/corporal punishment and severe physical violence) as well as the invariance of the models according to the sex of the respondent parent. MethodThe data were derived from the latest survey on family violence in Québec conducted in 2012 with two independent samples of 4029 mothers and of 1342 fathers of 0- to 17-year-old children. Mothers are on average 38.7 years old and hold a university degree or college diploma (76%). They are most often in employment (82%) and come from two-parent families (71%). Fathers are on average 41.5 years old and have a university degree or college diploma (60%). They most often hold a paid job (91%) and come from a two-parent family (82%). ResultsThe results show that the three subscales have good internal consistency, as measured by the polychoric alphas. The factorial structure of the subscales was also confirmed for both samples, although the measure of severe physical violence showed some particularities notably because of the asymmetrical distribution of the ordinal answers. ConclusionThe French translation and adaptation of the PC-CTS has good psychometric qualities and its use in the Francophonie context for epidemiological surveillance of parental violence is recommended.

Assessing child physical abuse: An examination of the factor structure and validity of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC)

Child maltreatment (CM) is associated with negative outcomes for young children across several areas of functioning. Given limitations in measuring different types of CM using substantiated abuse reports, other assessments may be helpful to inform identification and intervention efforts, such as self-report measures. The Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC) is a parent-report measure that provides information regarding the presence and severity of parenting behaviors related to CM subtypes, including physical and psychological abuse. The current study examines the factor structure of the CTSPC as well as its convergent validity with a behavioral observation measure, the Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS). Pre-treatment archival data for 110 parent-child dyads with a substantiated physical abuse incident who were court-mandated to receive treatment as part of a larger study were used. Results demonstrated that a four-factor model best described the structure of the CTSPC, contrary to the theoretically-proposed structure of the measure. Reports on the CTSPC scales were also associated with several parent behaviors measured by the DPICS. Possible areas of improvement for the scale were provided. The current study has implications for further psychometric development of the CTSPC as well as its future use as a measure of parenting behaviors related to abuse.

Correlates of Suicidal Ideation and Self-harm in Early Childhood in a Cohort at Risk for Child Abuse and Neglect

Objectives: This study provides prevalence and persistence rates of suicidal ideation and self-harm, and examines how child maltreatment types, mental health symptoms, and age 4 suicidal ideation and self-harm are associated with each suicidal outcome among 6-year-old children.Methods: Participants were 1,090 caregivers assessed when their children were 4 and 6 years old from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect. Data were collected from the Child Behavior Checklist, Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales, and Child Protective Services.Results: Persistence rates within each suicidal outcome were high. Failure to provide -a physical neglect subtype- was the only maltreatment type that independently predicted self-harm. Depressive/anxious symptoms and age 4 suicidal ideation were independently associated with age 6 suicidal ideation, whereas attention problems and age 4 self-harm predicted age 6 self-harm.Conclusion: Our findings align with the consensus emerging from adolescent studies that risk factors associate differentially with suicidal ideation and self-harm.

The reliability paradox of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Corporal Punishment Subscale.

In the present investigation we consider and explain an apparent paradox in the measurement of corporal punishment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-PC): How can it have poor internal consistency and still be reliable? The CTS-PC was administered to a community sample of 453 opposite sex couples who were parents of 3- to 7-year-old children. Internal consistency was marginal, yet item response theory analyses revealed that reliability rose sharply with increasing corporal punishment, exceeding .80 in the upper ranges of the construct. The results suggest that the CTS-PC Corporal Punishment subscale reliably discriminates among parents who report average to high corporal punishment (64% of mothers and 56% of fathers in the present sample), despite low overall internal consistency. These results have straightforward implications for the use and reporting of the scale. (PsycINFO Database Record

Maternal negative emotional expression and discipline in Beijing, China: The moderating role of educational attainment

The current study shows that parental punitive discipline places children at risk of developing internalizing and externalizing problems. Although some studies have analyzed the reasons for the use of discipline methods, little to no research has analyzed the moderating effects. In this study, we examine the relationship between maternal negative emotional expression and mothers’ use of disciplinary methods (psychological aggression, corporal punishment and physical maltreatment) and the moderating effects of educational attainment in Chinese societies. Five hundred and sixteen mothers with preschool-aged children were recruited to participate in this research. The Chinese versions of the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire (SEFQ) and the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTSPC) were used to measure the mothers’ negative emotional expression and discipline, respectively. The results suggested that the mothers’ negative emotional expression was positively related to their disciplinary behaviors. Moreover, maternal educational attainment moderated the association between negative emotional expression and discipline. The findings of the current study highlight the importance of considering how mothers’ educational backgrounds may interact with their emotions to influence maternal disciplinary behaviors.

Gender differences in pathways from physical and sexual abuse to early substance use

Early substance use (i.e., before age 14) is a known risk factor for substance use disorder, but scarce research has examined gender differences in pathways to early substance use. This study applies a developmental traumatology perspective to examine the relations between child physical and sexual abuse and early substance use among youths investigated by child protective services (CPS), a population with high risk for substance use disorder. Drawing from the first National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW), a sample of 11–13year olds (n=467 girls, n=329 boys) was examined. Multiple group path analysis assessed gender differences in the relations between physical and sexual abuse severity and early substance use and indirect effects via internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and posttraumatic stress. Focal measures included the child-reported Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (physical abuse severity), the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (posttraumatic stress), the Youth Self-Report (internalizing and externalizing problems), and the NSCAW's caseworker-alleged abuse (sexual abuse severity) and child substance abuse modules (any current alcohol, marijuana, hard drug, inhalant, or nonmedical prescription drug use). Significant indirect effects of physical abuse severity to early substance use were found through externalizing behavior problems in girls only (β=0.068; 95% CI=0.029, 0.130; p=0.004), with a significantly stronger relation between externalizing problems and early substance use in girls. Results suggest gender differences in the sequelae of trauma as they relate to early onset substance use and the need to integrate mental health and substance use services.

Attitudes mediate the intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment in China

This research aimed to examine the intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment and the role of parents’ attitudes toward corporal punishment in the transmission processes in Chinese societies. Based on social-cognitive theory, it was hypothesized that parents' attitudes toward corporal punishment would mediate the transmission of corporal punishment. Seven hundred and eighty-five fathers and eight hundred and eleven mothers with elementary school-age children (data collected in winter 2009) were recruited through convenience sampling techniques. The Chinese version of Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC) and Attitude toward Physical Punishment Scale (ATPP) were used as the main assessment tools to measure parents' corporal punishment experiences in childhood, current use of corporal punishment and attitudes toward corporal punishment. Findings revealed that the strength of intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment was strong and parents' attitudes toward corporal punishment played a mediating role in the continuity of corporal punishment for both fathers and mothers in China. The findings highlighted the role of attitudes in the intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment within the Chinese cultural context and also suggested the need for intervention programs to focus on modification of maladaptive attitudes toward what is appropriate and effective discipline.