Parent-adolescent Communication Research Articles

The Ways of Communication with Parents and The Parenting Styles During Adolescence

The importance of the role of parents in the development of adolescents is increasingly being emphasized. Studies shows that adolescent-parent communication and different type of parenting styles can influence adolescents’ behaviors and attitudes since parents are accessible sources of information for them. The relevant contents in this article provide some references for parental influences on adolescents' mental health.

Adolescent perspectives on negotiating self-management responsibilities for type 1 diabetes with their parents

ObjectiveThe overall purpose of this study was to explore adolescent perspectives on communicating about self-management of type 1 diabetes (T1D) and negotiating responsibilities for self-management with parents. MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 28 adolescents aged 11–17 years living with T1D. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed. ResultsTwo themes and five subthemes were identified. The first theme, ‘changing levels of involvement in self-management’ describes the division of responsibility for self-management within the family and adolescents collaborating and sharing responsibilities with parents for self-management. The second theme, ‘talking about self-management with parents’ describes changes in patterns of parent-adolescent communication about T1D over time, adolescents’ seeking parental feedback and advice and the factors that contribute to the promotion of self-management communication between adolescents and parents. ConclusionThis study identified that how adolescents perceive communication with their parents contributes to negotiation of responsibilities for self-management during adolescence. The findings provide a nuanced understanding of adolescent perspectives on communication with parents about T1D self-management and how parent-adolescent communication can be framed in ways that promote positive adolescent engagement with T1D self-management. Practice implicationsTargeting parent-adolescent communication strategies may result in more optimal sharing of responsibilities and improved self-management.

Provider Facilitation of Parent-Adolescent Health Communication: Findings From a National Survey

Primary care providers are well-positioned to facilitate parent-adolescent health communication. We examined provider-facilitated parent-adolescent health communication prevalence and associations with parent-adolescent health communication. Using data from a national survey of parent-adolescent dyads (n = 853), we calculated the prevalence of provider-facilitated parent-adolescent health communication about 11 topics as a result of adolescent's last preventive visit. We examined correlates of of provider-facilitatedparent-adolescent communication and associations with with parent-adolescent communication. Eighteen percent of adolescents reported that a provider helped them talk with their parent about a health concern, with little variability by adolescent, parent, or provider characteristics. Prevalence of parent-adolescent communication because of an adolescent's last preventive visit ranged between 38.4% and 79.5%. Provider facilitation was positively associated with parent-adolescent communication for all topics. Given the low prevalence of provider-facilitated-parent-adolescent health communication and positive associations between provider facilitation and parent-adolescent communication about multiple important health-related topics, efforts to improve this practice could be beneficial.

Parent-adolescent communication on sexuality issues: A matter to discuss

Parent-adolescent communication on sexuality issues: A matter to discuss

Family Communication About Cancer in Korea: A Dyadic Analysis of Parent-Adolescent Conversation

Parent-adolescent communication is important in the context of childhood cancer. However, we know little about the communication experiences between Korean adolescents and their parents. Here, we conducted a secondary analysis of interview data from a qualitative descriptive study to explore Korean parent-adolescent communication experiences as a unit. Specifically, our dyadic analysis of individual interviews with seven Korean adolescents with cancer and at least one parent included inductive analysis at the individual level and cross-analysis to generate themes. The main theme was “Experience the same thing, but see it differently,” along three subthemes: (1) different expectations for parent-adolescent communication, (2) different views on communication challenges, and (3) limited sharing and no progress in the conversation. Overall, our findings provide insights into different communication expectations and preferences between Korean adolescents and parents, and reasons for communication challenges, while emphasizing the individualized assessment of parent-adolescent communication between them.

Witnessing Parental Drinking, Parental Monitoring, and Parent-Adolescent Alcohol Risk Communication as Risk Factors for Adolesce

Witnessing Parental Drinking, Parental Monitoring, and Parent-Adolescent Alcohol Risk Communication as Risk Factors for Adolesce

Do financial education workshops enhance parent–adolescent communication about money?

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of financial education workshops (FEWs) on parent–adolescent communication about money by controlling for a parent's gender.Design/methodology/approachThis study utilized a pre- and post-survey-based experimental research design for impact evaluation. Assuming that parents often claim that they frequently communicate with their children about money, the researcher asked children to rate their perception of their mothers' financial communication with them. Their mothers completed the pre-survey before agreeing to participate in FEWs. A follow-up survey was conducted for both study groups six months after completing the FEW series. The data consisted of 300 responses on 19 pairs of money communication items from both study groups. Neither the mothers nor the children were aware that data were collected from both the groups.FindingsThe results of the paired t-tests support the notion that financial education enhances monetary communication between mothers and adolescents.Research limitations/implicationsThis study is helpful to policymakers and financial educators not only to understand the need for “family-based financial education workshops” but also to design and implement such programs to open up the line of “money communication” between parents and children.Social implicationsThis important outcome provides a likely assumption that the enhancement in communication that had been previously constrained by factors such as a “parent's inability or unwillingness to discuss financial matters” is improved by empowering the parent on the subject of personal finance. Second, financial educators and policymakers need to understand that parents play a crucial role in the socialization process of their children. Parents' instructions and communications with their children not only impact the children's financial choices but also make them feel more competent about managing their finances. So, importance of financial socialization strategies should be included in the FEWs designed for the adults.Originality/valueExisting research studies evaluated the FEW outcomes by reporting a positive change in various financial behaviors of the participants by considering only one unit of the household. This study extends the impact evaluation of FEWs to measure the behavioral outcomes at the household level by considering two units of the household, the mother parent and adolescent child by studying their communication about money.

Parent-Adolescent Communication on Sexual and Reproductive Health: Perceptions and Experiences of Out-Of-School Adolescent Mothers in the East Gonja Municipality, Ghana

Social institutions such as family have an important role to play in shaping adolescent sexual behaviour, and parents remain central to this responsibility. Available evidence suggests that adolescent girls who are engaged in a healthy parent-child communications on sexual and reproductive health (SRH) (e.g. sex, contraception, and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) prevention) at an early age are more likely to learn or adopt safe sexual behaviors. This qualitative study explored the perceptions and experiences of out-of-school adolescent mothers on parent-child SRH communications. Sixty-four (64) participants were recruited from the antenatal care (ANC) unit of the East Gonja Municipal Hospital in Salaga, Ghana, through purposive sampling technique. Data were collected from six focus group discussions (FGDs) and thematic analyses were conducted using ATLAS.ti version 9. The results of the FGDs were presented using illuminating verbatim quotations. In all the FGDs, parents were cited as an important source of SRH information. Parent-adolescent conversations on SRH were often initiated by the female parent and this often took the form of case-base discussion. However, most participants indicated were unsatisfied with the topics discussed and the context in which parent-adolescent SRH communications were conducted. Lack of trust, perceived authoritative and insensitive nature of male parents to the needs and plights of adolescent girls, and socio-cultural norms restricting/prohibiting open discussions on SRH, especially those concerning sexuality and contraception, were mentioned as barriers to effective parent-adolescent SRH communications. Parent-adolescent SRH communications were lately initiated, infrequent, and often did not address the most important aspects of adolescent SRH.

The Relationship Between Parents' Communication With Students Towards Emotional Intelligence In The First Year Of The Faculty Of Medicine Undana


 Background: Emotional intelligence is the ability of a person to regulate their emotional life by maintaining emotional harmony and expression through the skills of self-control, self-motivation, empathy and social skills. Emotional intelligence in adolescents are fundamentally formed based on the patterned form a relationship when communicating with parents.
 Objective: To analyze the relationship between parents and students' communication with emotional intelligence in the first year of the Faculty of Medicine Undana
 Methods: This study is an observational analytical method with a cross-sectional design carried out on first-year students at the Faculty of Medicine, Nusa Cendana University. The sampling technique is simple random sampling with a sample of 120 resopondents. This study used the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS) questionnaire and the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form (TEIQue-SF). The data was analyzed univariately and bivariately using the phi coefficient test. 
 Results: Phi coefficient test shows that there was no significant relationship of emotional intelligence with father communication (p=0.44) and maternal communication (p=0.447). 
 Conclusion: There is no significant relationship between Parents' and Students' Communication towards Emotional Intelligence In the First Year of the Faculty of Medicine Undana 
 Keywords: Parental Communication, Emotional Intelligence, First Year

Parents' perspectives of factors affecting parent-adolescent communication about type 1 diabetes and negotiation of self-management responsibilities.

Adolescence is an important time in which young people take on type 1 diabetes (T1D) self-management responsibility. Parents are key facilitators of this process. Little is known about parents' experiences of communicating with their children about T1D during adolescence. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 parents (24mothers and 8 fathers) of adolescents (11-17years) living with T1D to explore how parents communicate about T1D and self-management with their adolescent children. Parents were recruited through two national child and adolescent diabetes and endocrine clinics and online advertisement through a national diabetes advocacy organisation. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed. Six themes were identified: parent factors, quality of the parent-adolescent relationship, communication strategies, adolescent factors, communication triggers and family/system factors. Understanding factors that impact communication about self-management between parents and adolescents will enable healthcare professionals to provide support and targeted interventions as parent and adolescent roles change over time.

Overcome the Fear (Vencer el Miedo): using entertainment education to impact adolescent sexual and reproductive health and parent-child communication in Mexico

BackgroundAdolescents in Mexico experience high pregnancy and birth rates. A collaboration with Grupo Televisa led to the development of an entertainment-education telenovela intervention, Overcome the Fear (OTF), which aired in 2020 to a national audience and addressed adolescent sexual and reproductive health (SRH) topics. This study details the development and evaluation of OTF’s impact on adolescent contraceptive practices and parent-adolescent SRH communication in Mexico.MethodsWe conducted cross-sectional survey interviews (street-intercept and telephone) with 12–19-year-olds (n = 1640) and parents of adolescent children (n = 820) post-broadcast across Mexico’s five most-populated metropolitan zones. Quotas were implemented for gender, zone, and OTF viewership (viewer vs. non-viewer). Bivariate statistics and multivariable binary logistic regression models assessed the relationship between OTF viewership (including parent-adolescent co-viewing) and adolescent contraceptive practices and parent-adolescent SRH communication. Adolescent and parent data are not dyadic and were analyzed separately.ResultsNearly half of adolescents (47.9%) and parents (47.7%) were viewers. Among adolescents, bivariate analyses suggest that viewers had less negative attitudes towards contraception (p < .001). Logistic regression models suggest that adolescent viewers were more likely to seek out information about contraception (p < .001) and unhealthy romantic relationships (p = .019), and to use contraception other than condoms (p = .027) and dual contraception (p = .042) in the last 3 months. Among parents, bivariate analyses suggest that non-viewers had more positive attitudes towards abstinence (p = .045) and more negative attitudes towards contraception and communication with adolescents about sex (p = .001). Logistic regression models suggest that parent viewers were more likely to have talked with adolescent children about sexual relations (p < .001), contraceptive methods (p = .01), condoms (p = .002), and abstinence (p = .002) in the last 3 months. Parent-adolescent co-viewing of OTF was also significantly related to certain outcomes in bivariate analyses.ConclusionsThis study suggests that viewership of a high-quality entertainment-education telenovela informed by extensive formative research is related to adolescent health outcomes and to parent-adolescent SRH communication on a country-wide scale in Mexico. Entertainment-education remains an underutilized public health strategy, despite its promise to engage viewers and motivate healthful behaviors.

The use of condoms and other birth control methods among sexually active school-going adolescents in nine sub-Saharan African countries

BackgroundAdolescents in sub-Saharan Africa still face sexual and reproductive health challenges. Contraceptives have been used to address these challenges. Despite efforts at national and global levels, contraceptive uptake among young people in Africa remains a challenge due to personal, societal, and health systems-based barriers. We estimated the prevalence and correlates of condom use and other birth control methods among sexually active school-going adolescents in nine sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries.MethodsWe conducted a secondary analysis of the Global School-based Student Health Surveys (GSHS) datasets pooled from nine SSA countries. We included a sample of 27,504 school-going adolescents 11 years and younger and 18 years and older. We employed meta-analysis using a random-effects model to estimate the total prevalence of the use of condoms, other birth control methods other than a condom and any birth control method at last sexual intercourse. We conducted complex sample descriptive and logistic regression analyses to determine the characteristics and determinants of not using condoms and other birth control methods among sexually active school-going adolescents in nine sub-Saharan African countries, respectively.ResultsMore than half [n = 4430, 53.8% (43.9–63.8)], two-fifth [n = 3242, 39.5% (33.2–45.9) and two-thirds of adolescents [n = 4838, 65.6% (57.5–73.7)] of sexually active in school adolescents across the nine sub-Saharan African countries used condom, other birth control methods and any form birth control method during their last sexual intercourse, respectively. The non-use of condoms at last sex was associated with being younger (less than 16 years) [AOR = 1.48;95%CI: 1.12–1.94], early sexual debut [AOR = 1.81(1.47–2.22)], having two or more sexual partners [AOR = 1.30(1.06–1.58)] and no/minimal parental support [AOR = 1.54(1.17–2.03)]. The non-use of other birth control methods at last sex was associated with being male [AOR = 1.37 (1.09–1.73)], early sexual debut [AOR = 1.83(1.48–2.27) and having no parental support [AOR = 1.64(1.34–2.00)].ConclusionContraceptive need among sexually active school adolescents in the nine sub-Saharan African countries is high. Such a need calls for the development of country-specific and or the review of existing school-based sexual health education and youth-friendly sexual and reproductive health interventions that target risky adolescents and promote adolescent-parent effective communication, connectedness and support.

A Six-Month Outcome Evaluation of Media Aware Parent, a Parent-Based Media Mediation and Sexual Health Communication Program to Promote Adolescent Sexual Health

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to evaluate the sustained effects of a web-based program for parents of adolescents designed to help them engage in media mediation and high-quality parent-adolescent communication about sex, relationships, and media. A randomized control trial was conducted with parent-adolescent pairs (n=375 pairs). Adolescents were in 7th-9th grade. Pairs were randomly assigned to either the intervention Media Aware Parent or active control (medically accurate adolescent sexual health information). This study analyzed the impact of Media Aware Parent 6 months after pretest. Several outcomes significant at one-month posttest were sustained at 6 months, including enhanced parents’ media-related cognitions (e.g. media skepticism) and adolescent awareness of family media rules. Parents’ reports of restrictive media mediation and adolescents’ reports of their parent engaging in supportive parenting, which were not significant at posttest, emerged as significant at 6 months, signifying that the program resulted in changes in parent behavior and the parent-adolescent relationship over time. The impact of the program on parent-adolescent communication quality and adolescent sexual health and media-related outcomes diminished over time, suggesting the need for program boosters to encourage parents to continue engaging in high-quality conversations with their adolescent children about sex, relationships, and media.

Psychological impact of parent-adolescent communication: A critical analysis

&lt;p&gt;Parent-adolescent relationship is an essential part of growing up and it is the key determinant of adolescents’ personality development. Their relationship with their families at this stage determines their character. Studies show there is a significant relationship between parent-adolescents’ communication and adolescents’ psychological well-being. However, the findings are not conclusive. The current quantitative research assessed the level of parent-adolescent communication on adolescents’ self-esteem and perceived stress. Data was collected among 377 Malaysians aged 12 to 17. The ‘parent-adolescent relationship questionnaire’ (PARQ), ‘rosenberg self-esteem scale’ and ‘perceived stress scale-10’ (PSS) were used. The results show that there is a positive correlation between parent adolescent communication and self-esteem r (350) =.390, p=.000 and a negative correlation between self-esteem and level of stress perceived among adolescents at r (350)=-.103, p=.054. The level of correlation shows a more positive relationship between parent adolescent communication, and self-esteem whereas the level of self-esteem does not immensely affect the stress level of these adolescents. Further, it was proven that female adolescents had lower self-esteem and higher stress compared to male adolescents. The study recommends that parents should cultivate good parent-adolescent communication to ensure positive psychological impact on their adolescents.&lt;/p&gt;

Understanding Oral Prep Interest Among South African Adolescents: The Role of Perceived Parental Support and PrEP Stigma.

We examined oral PrEP interest among adolescents and its association with perceived parental support and PrEP stigma. Cross-sectional data were collected during baseline procedures of the "Our Family Our Future" intervention trial in South Africa. Adolescents (14-16 years) at elevated risk for acquiring HIV and their parents or caregivers were dyadically enrolled from 2018 to 2021. There were 879 complete adolescent-parent dyads. Among adolescents, 27% had heard about PrEP, 67% reported they would want to use PrEP, and 58% thought their parent would want them to use PrEP. Among parents, 33% had heard about PrEP and 85% reported they would want their adolescent to use PrEP. Adolescents who thought their parent would want them to use PrEP were more likely to be interested in PrEP than adolescents who thought their parent would not want them to use PrEP (adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR) = 2.11, 95% CI 1.82, 2.44). Further, adolescents with higher average PrEP stigma scores above the adolescent sample median were less likely to be interested in PrEP than adolescents with lower average PrEP stigma scores (aPR = 0.81, 95% CI 0.72, 0.91). In conclusion, parents were more supportive of their adolescent taking PrEP than adolescents perceived they would be, and perceptions of low parental support and greater PrEP stigma were associated with reduced PrEP interest among adolescents. Interventions should aim to improve adolescent-parent communication around sexual health and effective HIV prevention tools.

Adolescent-Parent Communication on Sexual and Reproductive Health and its Associated Factors among Higher Secondary School Students of Tokha Municipality, Kathmandu, Nepal

Introduction Physical, psychological, and emotional growth are among the changes that define the adolescent stage. As compared to other age groups, adolescents are more vulnerable to sexual and reproductive health issues. Parents can become protective and influencing factors for their children to prevent risky sexual behavior. This study aims to assess adolescent-parent communication on sexual and reproductive health and its associated factors. Methods A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 212 adolescents aged 15–19 in higher secondary schools of Tokha Municipality. A self-administered structured modified questionnaire to assess the communication used the Weighted Topics Measure of Family Sexual Communication (WTM) tool with a simple random sampling technique of data collection. We performed descriptive statistical analysis and chi-square tests to analyze data and assess the association between variables. Data quality was assured through careful questionnaire design, pretesting, and training. Results The study found that about 75.9% of adolescents had communicated on SRH topics with their parents. Only 56.1%, 50.1%, 55.2%, and 50.5% of adolescents communicated about choosing a life partner, menstruation, physical and psychological changes during adolescence, and the physical growth and development of reproductive organs, respectively, while topics like using birth controls, when to start having sex, pregnancy, how to handle sexual pressure from a partner, STI and HIV/AIDs, about condoms, and abortion had never communicated by 61.3%, 86.6%, 69.3%, 85.8%, 72.2%, 78.8%, and 82.5% of adolescents, respectively. Adolescent-parent communication on sexual and reproductive health was significantly associated with the level of knowledge regarding sexual and reproductive health (X2 = 5.809, p = 0.01, df = 1). Similarly, there was a significant association with the perceived parenting style (X2 =3.932, p =0.04, df =1), living arrangements (X2 =6.376, p=0.01, df =1), and adolescent-parent communication. Conclusion It concluded that adolescent-parent communication on SRH issues is not satisfactory. Creating an adolescent-friendly environment at home and conducting awareness programs with the help of the local government of the respective schools would help to increase adolescent-parent communication.

Parent-Adolescent Sexuality Communication in the African Context: A Scoping Review of the Literature.

Young people constitute a critical mass in Africa south of the Sahara (SSA) yet lack adequate information on sexuality education essential for their health and development. Guided by two sociological perspectives on socialization, that is, structural functionalism and conflict perspective, our study had 2 aims: 1) to identify and analyze studies investigating parent-adolescent sexuality communication (ie, triggers/contents) and 2) to identify and discuss barriers to sexuality-related communication between parents and adolescents. The scoping review was conducted according to the Arksey and O'Malley framework and used PRISMA reporting guidelines for scoping reviews. We searched three databases (Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar) for relevant articles published in English in the last decade -2011 to 2021 and analyzed the data using a qualitative content analysis approach. A total of 1045 studies were identified. After abstract review, we identified 58 papers, and after full-text review, 16 studies were included in the final review. Aim 1a) Discussions of sexuality-related conversations were triggered by parents/caretakers due to pubertal/physical changes and adolescents' "inapt" behaviors (eg, engaging in sex). Aim 1b) Our results showed that contents of sexuality education de-emphasized/avoided sensitive sexuality-related topics (such as condom use/contraception) that did not fit within the sociocultural norms/expectations, characterized by threats, cautions, and wrought with moralistic and religious views that evaded practical information regarding sex, contraception, and other critical sexual information. Aim 2: Two themes emerged as barriers that impede sexuality-related discussions, including whose responsibility it is to discuss sexuality-issues with adolescents and the gender differences/discordance of parent-adolescent dyads. Sexuality education for adolescents in SSA is not comprehensive due to structured power relations. Thus, parent-adolescent sexuality communication falls short of the value of sexuality education for young people for whom accurate and complete sexual health information is critical for making informed decisions as they emerge into adulthood.

Practitioner Review: Signposts for Enhancing Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for School Refusal in Adolescence.

Factors associated with adolescent development influence the occurrence and presentation of school refusal (SR). Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) manuals for the treatment of SR account for these developmental issues to varying degrees. Some multimodal treatments aim to address the complexity of adolescent SR by incorporating interventions alongside CBT, such as medication, inpatient treatment, and educational support in a special setting. However, CBT manuals and multimodal treatments appear to fail to help approximately one-third to two-thirds of adolescents, with respect to achieving regular school attendance. This paper provides an overview of suggestions in the literature for improving treatment for SR, with a focus on adolescent SR. Seven signposts emerge from the literature, namely, increased number or frequency of sessions, greater attention to social anxiety disorder and social functioning, greater attention to depression, greater attention to emotion regulation, careful consideration of the role of parents, greater attention to parent-adolescent communication and problem-solving, and the use of alternative educational settings. Professionals may find these signposts helpful when planning and delivering treatment for SR in adolescents. Research is needed to determine the benefit of including one or more of these adaptations alongside an existing SR treatment.

Mental Health Problems amongst Left-behind Adolescents in China: Serial Mediation Roles of Parent-Adolescent Communication and School Bullying Victimisation

AbstractBackgroundAdolescent mental health is a global public health concern and parental migration has been identified as a risk factor. However, the effect mechanism remained unclear.MethodsA total of 2,737 participants (mean = 11.93, SD = 1.23) were recruited from twelve schools in migrant-sending areas in Zhejiang and Anhui provinces. The participants responded to items in Child Depression Inventory, Parent–Adolescent Communication Scale, Olweus Bully or Victim Questionnaire and socio-demographic questions. Serial multiple mediation models were analysed using the bootstrapping method.ResultsCurrent and previous left-behind (LB) experience were significantly associated with higher risks of depression, non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal ideation (p &amp;lt; 0.05). Mother–adolescent communication and school bullying victimisation, in serial order, mediated the effect of current LB status on mental health (p &amp;lt; 0.05). In terms of previously LB adolescents, parent–adolescent communication was a standalone mediator (p &amp;lt; 0.01) and the serial mediation effect of parent–adolescent communication and school bullying victimisation was significant.ConclusionsLack of parent–adolescent communication and school bullying victimisation acted as risk factors for the negative effect of LB status or experience on adolescent mental health. The importance of these two interpersonal factors motivates future intervention initiatives to support the mental health of LB adolescents from an integrated perspective.

To assess and compare the mental health of current-left-behind children, previous-left-behind children with never-left-behind children.

The study's goal was to compare the mental health of children who are now left-behind (current-LBC) to children who have never been left-behind (never-LBC). Recruits were culled from rural Chinese schools. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS) were used to examine participants' migratory status, mental health, and parent-child communication (PACS). A total of 2,000 current-, 500 previous-, and 300 never-LBCs in had complete data readily accessible for research and analysis. A number of mental health issues, such as emotional symptoms, conduct, and hyperactivity issues as well as overall challenges were considerably increased when all confounding factors were taken into account in the analysis. Our findings also showed a substantial link between children's overall issues and their inability to effectively communicate with parents. Children suffer long-term consequences as a result of their parents' frequent moves. The mental health of children is closely linked to the quality of communication between parents and children. Migrant parents' ability to comprehend and communicate with their children is critical to their children's development, according to the findings of this study.