Paraplegic Athletes Research Articles

Do lower limb deficiencies interfere with the recruitment of the trunk and upper limb muscles of paracanoe athletes?

Abstract Aim: This study aimed to compare the recruitment of the anterior deltoid, pectoralis major, triceps (long head), and latissimus dorsi muscles during rowing, in paracanoe and canoe athletes. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study, with ethical approval, including a sample of five paraplegic athletes, four lower limb amputees, and four athletes without disabilities. Surface electromyography of the anterior deltoid, pectoralis major, triceps (long head), and latissimus dorsi muscles. The athletes rowed for three minutes in an ergometer kayak. The Root Mean Square (RMS) signal of the second minute of data collection, normalized by the RMS peak (% RMS), was considered for analysis. Results: The results of paraplegic athletes, amputees, and athletes without disabilities were similar, as follows; the anterior deltoid: 10.81 ± 3.1; 9.6 ± 3.13 and 9.92 ± 3.12 (p = 0.83), pectoralis major: 7.71 ± 0.66; 8.66 ± 0.66 and 8.53 ± 2.62 (p = 0.72), long head of the triceps: 8.41 ± 3.05; 4.79 ± 1.2 and 6.66 ± 1.01 (p = 0.08), and latissimus dorsi: 8.18 ± 1.97; 6.39 ± 2.64 and 6.95 ± 1.64 (p = 0.45). Conclusion: Paracanoe and canoe athletes present similar muscle recruitment of the upper limbs and trunk during rowing.

Pilot study on the effects of intravesical oxybutynin hydrochloride instillations on the validity of doping control urine samples.

According to class M2.1 of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Prohibited List, the manipulation of doping control urine samples to alter their integrity and validity is prohibited both in- and out-of-competition. However, some paraplegic athletes with an overactive bladder need to be regularly treated with anti-cholinergic and anti-spasmodic drugs such as oxybutynin, which are often administered intravesically to reduce the substantial side effects observed after oral application. So far, it remains unclear whether such bladder instillations have a negative impact on analytical procedures and thus represent an anti-doping rule violation. Within this pilot study, urine samples were collected from five paraplegic athletes before and after an intravesical oxybutynin hydrochloride instillation. The samples were routinely tested for the presence of performance-enhancing drugs and afterwards fortified with 25 model compounds representing different classes of doping agents (anabolic agents, cannabinoids, diuretics, glucocorticoids, hormone and metabolic modulators, and stimulants) at low and medium concentrations. Additionally, the pH value and specific gravity were measured and the presence of oxybutynin was qualitatively determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In initial testing procedures, all samples were tested negative. Oxybutynin was present in most of the samples but found to have no significant effect on the detectability of the 25 model compounds subsequently added to each urine specimen. Therefore, it can be concluded that intravesical instillations with oxybutynin hydrochloride do not alter the integrity and validity of doping control urine samples.

A comparison of isokinetic rotator cuff performance in wheelchair basketball athletes vs. non-athletes with spinal cord injury

Objectives This study aimed to compare the isokinetic peak torque and, secondarily, other parameters of the rotator cuff in the shoulders of paraplegic wheelchair basketball athletes and non-athletes controls. Design Cross-sectional study. Methods Thirty-six complete spinal cord injured individuals aged between 18 and 45 years performed an isokinetic evaluation of peak torque, power, and work exerted by the rotator cuff muscle group, in a Biodex System. All Concentric isokinetic tests were performed in the seated position with the shoulder at a 45° abduction from the scapular plane and flexed at 30° to the frontal plane. Subjects completed five repetitions at 60°/s and 180°/s, and ten repetitions at 300°/s, bilaterally, with an interval of one minute between each series. Statistical analysis (t-test, P < 0.05) compared athletes and non-athletes, dominant and non-dominant upper limbs according to all isokinetic parameters and angular velocities. Results Peak torque/weight, work, and muscle power of wheelchair basketball athletes were significantly greater than those of the control group (P < 0.05), but there were no statistical differences between dominant and non-dominant upper limb. Internal rotators were stronger than the external rotators both for athletes and for non-athletes. There is a positive correlation between peak torque and time since injury. Conclusions Wheelchair basketball athletes showed greater peak torque and other muscle performance parameters, which suggest that wheelchair basketball influences the shoulder musculature of those with traumatic spinal cord injury.

Towards a Pre-History of Disability Sport in Victoria, Australia

The history of disability sport is an emerging field. However, much of the work in this area has tended to focus on celebratory accounts of the Paralympics. Accordingly, what is needed are histories that focus on the experiences of individual athletes that avoid the trope of positioning them as ‘tragic’ figures rescued from lives of misery. At issue are narratives of empowerment, progress and agency. This paper responds to this challenge with a ‘pre-history’ of formal wheelchair sporting contests in the Australian state of Victoria. By following the stories of two people who would become, among other things, paraplegic athletes in the 1950s and beyond, it provides a rare local story of the individual, medical and sporting worlds that came together to provide the foundations for the development of formal wheelchair sport. While the narrative of this paper has elements of the traditional celebratory tale of progress, it also points to the agency of the individuals and to the complexities of the medical worlds that they encountered – worlds that could hinder, as well as help facilitate, their recovery. As such this paper also provides something of an exploratory meeting place between the history of sport and the history of medicine.

Effects Of Different Intensities Of Acute Exercise On Systemic Markers Of Inflammation In Paraplegic Athletes.

Individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCI) have a diagnosis of chronic low-grade inflammation, giving an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in this population. Physical training is one of the main therapies in rehabilitation for people with SCI, however, the effects of acute exercise on the inflammatory profile in individuals with SCI are not well investigated. PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of different intensities of acute exercise on systemic markers of inflammation in paraplegic athletes. METHODS: The sample consisted of 18 male volunteers divided into two groups: Group C - control (n = 9); Group SCI- spinal cord injury (n = 9). The subjects performed three sessions of exercise at different intensities: light, moderate and intense. Blood samples were taken before, immediately and 30 minutes after exercise sessions. IL-1 RA and IL-1 β assessed through ELISA (R & D Systems®, São Paulo, Brazil). Unpaired t-test was used to compare the values of cytokines at rest in both groups and the effect of different intensities was evaluated using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures. The significance level was p <0.05. RESULTS: The group C presented: age 26± 3.1 years (mean ± SD); height 175.6 ± 12.9 cm; weight 75.1 ± 16.9 kg. In turn, the group SCI presented age 29 ± 6 years; 170.8 ± 7.7 cm height; weight 59.2 ± 6.2 kg. The inflammatory profile evaluation in the SCI group revealed an increase in the baseline levels of IL-1 β (0.241 ± 0.019 versus 0.165 ± 0012pg/ml) compared to group C. Regarding the effect of different intensities of acute exercise on cytokines, were found an increase in IL-1 RA in the control group immediately after the exercise session (436.3 ± 61.06 vs. 312.7 ± 40 pg / ml) compared to baseline. CONCLUSION: We conclude that paraplegic athletes have a worse inflammatory profile when compared to the control group. After the session of acute exercise at high intensity, only the control group showed an increase of IL1-RA, suggesting that, in individuals with spinal cord injury, acute exercise did not lead to systemic anti-inflammatory environment, as observed in the control group. Supported by FAPESP: 2012/16086-9

Are tetraplegic handbikers going to disappear from team relay in para-cycling?

Are tetraplegic handbikers going to disappear from team relay in para-cycling?

Cardiovascular drift in trained paraplegic and able-bodied individuals during prolonged wheelchair exercise: effect of fluid replacement

The progressive heart rate (HR) increase and stroke volume (SV) decline during prolonged constant-load leg exercise signifies cardiovascular drift (CVdrift); fluid replacement is known to minimize this phenomenon. Like their able-bodied counterparts (AB), paraplegic athletes undergo prolonged exercise during training and competition, which could result in CVdrift. The aim of this study is to address the role of rehydration on preventing CVdrift in spinal cord injured (SCI) paraplegic athletes. Eight SCI athletes with an injury level between C7 and T6 and 9 AB subjects performed 60-min constant-load exercise on a wheelchair ergometer in a thermo-neutral environment. No fluid was taken in 1 trial, whereas 85% of sweat losses were replaced by drinking water in another trial. Cardic output (CO), SV, HR, and oral temperature (Tor) were determined during exercise. Prolonged exercise resulted in similar HR (18 beats·min(-1) for AB and 12 beats·min(-1) for SCI) and Tor (0.63 °C for AB and 0.71 °C for SCI) elevation and SV decline (-8.5 mL·beat(-1) for AB and -5.5 mL·beat(-1) for SCI), whereas CO remained unchanged. Water intake restrained the exercise-induced hyperthermia and resulted in smaller SV decline (-4.0 mL for AB and -3.0 mL for SCI, p < 0.01). In conclusion, CVdrift was similar in SCI and AB subjects during prolonged wheelchair exercise. Likewise, the beneficial effects of hydration in both groups were analogous.

Salivary Immunoglobulin A and Upper Respiratory Symptoms During 5 Months of Training in Elite Tetraplegic Athletes

Altered autonomic innervation in tetraplegic individuals has been shown to depress certain immune parameters at rest and alter exercise-related salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA) responses. The purpose of this study was to examine resting sIgA responses as a function of training load and episodes of upper respiratory symptoms (URS) in elite tetraplegic athletes. Resting saliva samples were obtained from 14 tetraplegic athletes at 12 predefined time points over 5 months and analyzed for sIgA. Occurrence of self-reported URS and training load was recorded throughout the study's duration. Regression analyses were performed to investigate the relationship between sIgA responses and training load. Furthermore, the relationships between sIgA responses and URS occurrence were examined. sIgA secretion rate was negatively correlated with training load (P=.04), which only accounted for 8% of the variance. No significant relationships were found between sIgA responses and subsequent URS occurrence. Finally, sIgA responses did not differ between athletes with and without recorded URS during the study period. In line with findings in able-bodied athletes, negative relationships between sIgA secretion rate and training load were found in tetraplegic athletes. This may explain some of the higher infection risk in wheelchair athletes with a high training load, which has been previously observed in paraplegic athletes. However, the nonsignificant relationship between sIgA responses and URS occurrence brings into question the use of sIgA as a prognostic tool for the early detection of URS episodes in the studied population.

Immunoendocrine responses of male spinal cord injured athletes to 1-hour self-paced exercise: Pilot study

This study examined the effect of a 1 h, self-paced handcycling time trial on blood leukocytes, mucosal immunity, and markers of stress in paraplegic athletes. Nine male paraplegic athletes (spinal injury level thoracic 4-lumbar 2) performed 1 h of handcycling exercise on a standard 400 m athletics track. Heart rate (HR) was measured continuously during exercise, and a retrospective rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was obtained immediately after. Venous blood and saliva samples were collected immediately before exercise (Pre-Ex), after exercise (End-Ex), and 1 h postexercise (1-h Post). The athletes completed mean +/- standard error of mean 22.4 +/- 1.1 km cycling at HR 165 +/- 2 beats/min, RPE 15 +/- 1, and blood lactate 7.9 +/- 2.5 mmol/L. Total leukocytes increased 72% and neutrophils increased 74% End-Ex; both remained elevated at 1-h Post (both p < 0.05). Lymphocytes increased 53% and natural killer cells increased 175% End-Ex (both p < 0.05), but returned to near baseline levels 1-h Post. Increases (p < 0.05) were observed End-Ex in alpha-amylase activity (p < 0.05), which returned to baseline at 1-h Post, but there was no significant change in saliva flow rate, salivary immunoglobulin A, or cortisol. These data confirm that 1 h of handcycling exercise elevated circulating leukocytes but had a minimal effect on mucosal immunity. These changes appear to be associated with alpha-amylase rather than cortisol.

Let Me Play! Girls with Disabilities and Physical Activity

This presentation addressed the benefits of physical activity, specifically the Bridge II Sports program, on the health and social issues facing girls with physical disabilities. The presenters briefly discussed relevant research, described the Bridge II Sports program, and shared personal experiences of four girls with disabilities before and after their involvement with Bridge II Sports. Need for Physical Activity for Girls with Disabilities Research shows that youth with disabilities demonstrate behaviors that vary from their non-disabled peers. For example, children with disabilities have demonstrated lower levels of school satisfaction, greater voluntary absenteeism, more frequent drinking/smoking, higher psycho-social distress, and higher sedentary activities. In addition, research found that girls were significantly less active than boys; more sedentary with increasing age (Hogan et al., 2000), at a greater risk for obesity (National Center on Physical Activity and Disability, 2007), had lower self-concept regarding physical appearance, social acceptance, athletic competence, and scholastic competence than their counterparts without disabilities (Shields et al., 2006). Benefits of Physical Activity for Girls with Disabilities Physical activity for women with disabilities has been shown to provide great benefits. Specifically, physical activity participation reduced physical de-conditioning and isolation (Santiago & Coyle, 2004), as well as improved psychosocial health and well-being, fostered a sense of independence and accomplishment, and increased awareness of their body's abilities and limitations (Rolfe, Renwick & Bailey, 2009). For girls with disabilities, physical activity increased social support (Anderson, Wozencroft, & Bedini, 2008) as well as served as an equalizer and provided normalcy (Bedini & Anderson (2005). Need for Organized Physical Activity Programs in North Carolina Unfortunately, in North Carolina, children with disabilities have few opportunities for physical activity. Estimates suggest that of the roughly 43,000 high school students, approximately 8,600 have a disability. While North Carolina has roughly 1000 high school basketball teams, there are only three youth wheelchair basketball competitive teams in the state - and participants travel an average of 1-hour to get to practices. These data illustrate that the exclusion of children with disabilities from opportunities for physical activity is significant and critical systems (community, medical, educational) are failing to serve these students. Testimonies Four participants shared their experiences before and after they got involved with the Bridge II Sportsprogram. Initiated in North Carolina, Bridge II Sports creates opportunities for children and adults who are physically challenged to play sports individually or on a team, helping them discover tenacity, confidence, self-esteem and the joy of finding the player within. Each of the girls noted the physical, social, emotional benefits of participation. Bella, a 10-year old with spinal cord injury, began her speech with My name is Bella, and today I am going to talk to you about being a paraplegic athlete and how adaptive sports and Bridge II Sports has changed my life. She continued to share how she found a basketball on the ground during recess one day and thought it could help her make new friends and become part of a team. Through Bridge II Sports, she was able to play. She described her first tournament saying: As a team we set goals for this first season and to do our best, play our hardest, and show good sportsmanship ... We learned a lot at that tournament. All the other teams had been playing a lot longer than us ... but it showed us how to be a team and work together ... I just couldn't get enough basketball! A teammate she met during the tournament is also 10-years old and in a wheelchair: . …

Stelarc: Arte, Tecnologia, Estética e Ética

O artigo conceitua brevemente ciberarte e pós-humano visando tratar especificamente da obra artística controversa de Stelarc. O artista usa como base para suas poéticas o aforismo midiático: “o corpo humano está obsoleto”. Partindo dessa proposição é feita uma breve descrição e análise de uma de suas obras mais recentes, “The Extra Ear”, com o objetivo de destacar algumas das questões éticas que a criação desse trabalho de ruptura estética pode suscitar.

Evaluation of artificial sweat in athletes with spinal cord injuries

Athletes with spinal cord injury often experience high heat storage due to reduced sweating capacity below the spinal injury. Spray bottle (SB) may be used to apply mist for evaporative cooling during breaks in competitions. This study examined the efficacy of SB during rest breaks. Seven participants, four female and three males, (mean +/- SD age 24 +/- 4.1 year, weight 56.2 +/- 7.0 kg, upper-body VO(2) peak 2.4 +/- 0.6 l/min) volunteered for the study. Participants were paraplegic athletes (T3-T12/L1) with both complete and incomplete lesions. Participants arm-cranked using a ramp protocol in an environment of 21 +/- 1.5 degrees C and 55 +/- 3% rh once using a SB during 1-min rest between 7-min stages of increasing intensity and once without the SB (CON). Mean total work was similar (p = 0.86) for the SB and CON (2495.7 +/- 914.6 vs. 2407.1 +/- 982.3 kJ, respectively). Likewise, the mean work times were similar between trials (27 +/- 6 and 26 +/- 7 min for SB and CON, respectively). Furthermore, there were no significant differences detected between trials for skin temperature, rectal temperature, esophageal temperature (p > 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences detected between trials for RPE (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the application of artificial sweat via SB was ineffective in attenuating the onset of uncompensable heat strain during high-intensity arm exercise in a comfortable environment.

Dietary Intake And Metabolic Markers In Athletes With Spinal Cord Injury Compared With Sedentary Non-disabled

Although well studied in many populations, data on dietary habits of people with spinal cord injury (SCI), especially athletes, and the relation to metabolic markers compared to the able-bodied (AB) population is lacking. PURPOSE: To assess nutrient intake and associations between metabolic markers in SCI athletes compared with sedentary AB controls. METHODS: Paraplegic athletes (n = 14, 7 women; duration of injury 16.5±5.7 yrs, injury level T5-L5) were compared with 16 sedentary, age- and BMI-matched AB (8 women) controls. Fasting lipids, insulin (INS) and glucose (GLU) were assessed via 2-h oral glucose challenge with area under the curve (AUC) and HOMA calculated. Dietary intake was obtained from 3-day food diaries. Body composition was assessed with DXA. RESULTS: Metabolic markers and nutrient intakes did not differ between SCI and AB. Trunk fat mass was lower in SCI than in AB (5.7±1.6kg, 7.7±2.0kg; p<0.01). In SCI, dietary fat intake (% of energy) was related (all p<0.05) to INS-AUC (r=0.58), total cholesterol (r=0.59), LDL (r=0.96) and HDL (r=0.56). Fiber intake was related to fasting INS (r=-0.75) and HOMA (r=-0.72). After controlling for trunk fat, % dietary fat remained related to LDL (r=0.56) and fiber remained related to fasting INS (r=-0.86) and HOMA (r=-0.83). In AB, daily energy intake was related to fasting GLU (r=0.50). Protein intake (% of energy) was related to GLU-AUC (r=0.63), INS-AUC (r=0.62), and HDL (r=-0.49). Carbohydrate intake (grams) was related to fasting GLU (r=0.56), and GLU-AUC (r=0.46). Fiber was related to HOMA (r=0.49); and saturated fat to HOMA (r=0.51). After controlling for trunk fat in AB, energy intake remained associated with fasting GLU (r=0.48), % protein intake with GLU- and INS-AUC (r=0.59, 0.56), and carbohydrate intake (grams) with fasting GLU (r=0.58). CONCLUSIONS: Despite greatly differing physical activity levels, dietary intake was similar in SCI athletes and sedentary AB controls; however, associations between nutrients and metabolic markers differed between SCI and AB such that dietary fat intake appears to negatively and fiber favorably impact SCI compared to AB. Conversely, protein and carbohydrate intake had greater implications for AB metabolic profiles. Trunk fat mass appeared to explain most correlations between markers and nutrients in SCI, but not in AB.

Evaluation Of Artificial Sweat In Athletes With Spinal Cord Injuries

PURPOSE: Athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI) often experience high heat storage due to reduced sweating capacity below the spinal injury. Spray bottles (SB) maybe used to apply mist for evaporative cooling during breaks in competitions. This study examined the efficacy of spray bottle during rest breaks. METHODS: Seven participants, four female and three males, (mean ± SD age 24 ± 4.1 yr, weight 56.2 ± 7.0 kg, upper-body VO2 peak 2.4 ± 0.6 L·min-1) volunteered for the study. Participants were paraplegic athletes (T3 to T12/L1) with both complete and incomplete lesions. Participants arm-cranked using a ramp protocol in an environment of 21°C ± 1.5°C and 55 ± 3 % rh once using a SB during 1-min rest between seven-minute stages of increasing intensity and once without the SB (CON). RESULTS: Mean total work was similar (p = 0.86) for the SB and CON (2495.7 ± 914.6 kJ vs. 2407.1 ± 982.3 kJ, respectively). Likewise, the mean work times were similar between trials (27 ± 6 min and 26 ± 7 min for SB and CON, respectively). Furthermore, there were no significant differences detected between trials for skin temperature, rectal temperature, esophageal temperature (p>0.05). There were also no significant differences detected for RPE between trials (p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Application of artificial sweat via a spray bottle was ineffective in attenuating the onset of uncompensable heat strain during high intensity arm exercise under the conditions of this study. However, even in absence of physiological changes, participants commonly commented positively regarding perceived cooling from the spray bottle.

Total haemoglobin mass but not cardiac volume adapts to long-term endurance exercise in highly trained spinal cord injured athletes

The oxygen transport system is an important component in the limitation of endurance performance in able-bodied and paraplegic athletes. The aim of the present study was to investigate the total haemoglobin mass (tHb, carbon monoxide rebreathing method) and cardiac volume (HV, echocardiography) in 25 highly endurance trained male spinal cord injured (mainly paraplegic) athletes (SCI-TRAINED) and to compare the results with those of 10 untrained spinal cord injured controls (SCI-UNTRAINED) and in 25 able-bodied elite endurance athletes (TRAINED). tHb and tHb/kg were higher in SCI-TRAINED than in SCI-UNTRAINED (748 +/- 110 vs. 629 +/- 209 g (464 +/- 68 vs. 390 +/- 130 mmol) (mean +/- SD), P = 0.02 and 10.3 +/- 1.3 vs. 7.9 +/- 2.0 g/kg (6.4 +/- 0.8 vs. 4.9 +/- 1.2 mmol/kg), P < 0.0001), while HV and HV/kg showed no significant differences between the two groups (765 +/- 93 vs. 793 +/- 164 ml and 10.6 +/- 1.4 vs. 10.3 +/- 2.5 ml/kg). No difference between SCI-TRAINED and TRAINED was found for septal diameter (9.5 +/- 1.0 mm vs. 9.7 +/- 0.7 mm). However, tHb and tHb/kg in SCI-TRAINED was lower than in TRAINED [896 +/- 123 g (556 +/- 76 mmol), P = 0.0003 and 12.6 +/- 1.3 g/kg (7.8 +/- 0.8 mmol), P < 0.0001]. In spinal cord injured athletes, tHb but not HV adapts moderately to chronic endurance exercise, although tHb in spinal cord injured athletes does not reach the level of able-bodied-trained persons.

Adaptation of Blood Volume and Cardiac Dimensions to Endurance Training in Paraplegic Athletes

PURPOSE: Oxygen delivery through the cardiovascular system is commonly considered as the most important factor limiting maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) in humans. Total haemoglobin mass (mHb), blood volume (BV) and cardiac output (determined by heart volume (HV) and stroke volume) are major contributors characterizing the performance of the cardiovascular system's oxygen transport capacity. In contrast to non-disabled athletes, paraplegic endurance athletes do not develop an "athletes heart" despite comparable exercise loads. This might indicate that the cardiovascular system is not limiting VO2max in this group. However, no data on the other components of the cardiovascular system such as mHb, BV and their interaction are available for paraplegic athletes. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate mHb, BV and cardiac dimensions in a group of paraplegic endurance athletes and to compare the findings with data with untrained paraplegics. METHODS: In 32 endurance trained male paraplegic athletes and 10 untrained paraplegics, mHb was determined using the optimized CO-rebreathing method and vascular volumes were calculated. HV was measured by echocardiography. The results were normalized for body mass (rHb, rBV, rHV, rVO2max). Both groups were compared using non-parametric tests. RESULTS: rHV and HV showed no significant difference between the two groups. Absolute and relative vascular volumes were significantly higher in the group of endurance trained paraplegic athletes (mHb 735±115g vs. 593±169g, rHb 10.2±1.2 vs. 8.5±2.5, BV 5335±901 vs. 4496±946, rBV 74±9.5 vs. 65±9.2; p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: mHb and BV adapt to endurance training in paraplegic athletes, cardiac dimensions do not. These findings indicate that in this group with reduced active muscle mass, VO2max is not limited by cardiac performance, but rather by the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. The difference in mHb and BV between trained and untrained paraplegics is comparable to this difference in a non-disabled population. Transferring these findings, they might point to the fact that within the entity of the cardiovascular system as VO2max limiting factor, the limit is situated in the blood, rather than the heart.

Kinematic analysis of the 100-m wheelchair race

The purpose of this study was to compare the speed and selected stroke cycle characteristics during different phases of the 100-m wheelchair race for paraplegic athletes. Four male and two female wheelchair racers in T4 classification and one male and three female athletes in T3 classification served as the participants. Two S-VHS camcorders (60 fields/s) were panned horizontally to cover the first and second 50 m of the 100-m race, respectively. Average speed, stroke length and frequency, contact and recovery times during the first 10 m (initial acceleration phase, IAP), the maximum speed phase (MSP), and the last 10 m (final phase, FP) of the race were determined. For each parameter, an ANOVA with repeated measures was performed and Tukey post hoc tests were completed when appropriate ( α=0.01). The 100-m times ranged from 16.10 to 22.18 s. Significant differences were found between IAP and MSP and between IAP and FP in stroke speed, stroke length, and push and recovery times, but not in stroke frequency. The relatively constant stroke frequency across different phases may suggest that wheelchair racers like to maintain the same stroking rhythm throughout a 100-m race. The distance and time needed to reach the maximum speed ranged from 43.9 m and 11.2 s to 82.2 m and 18.9 s, respectively. The significant correlation between 100-m time and maximum speed ( p<0.001) signifies the importance of maximum speed in determining 100-m performance.

Performance diagnostics in handbiking during competition

Case study in handbiking under competition conditions. To investigate exercise-induced, metabolic, pulmonary, cardiovascular and energetic reactions of a paraplegic athlete during a city marathon. City marathon Cologne, Germany. We tested a 27-year-old male athlete from the German national team. The handicap of the athlete was a complete traumatic spinal cord injury ASIA/IMSOP Grade A at the level of the fourth thoratic vertebra (Th4). In the competition, the athlete used his own race handbike whose crank system had been exchanged for a power measurement system with registering option. For measuring ventilatory gas parameters during exercise, a portable spirometric system was used. The athlete managed to finish the marathon race in 1:48:54 h. The mean oxygen uptake (VO2) during the marathon was 1580 ml/min, with a maximum value of 2535 ml/min. The mean heart frequency was 137 bpm with a maximum of 157 bpm. During the race the mean energy consumption was 463 kcal/h with a maximum of 758 kcal/h. Prior to the race, the blood lactate value was 2.9 mmol/l; after 10 km 4.4 mmol/l; after 20 km 2.9 mmol/l, and after 30 km 2.9 mmol/l. Competition-oriented handbikers should concentrate on exercise units of long duration at low intensities--like marathon runners or cyclists--in order to improve their aerobic performance capacity. However, it has to be pointed out that paraplegic athletes develop relatively high metabolic intensities in competition and that the variability of their physiological parameters is considerably high.

Influence of pre-exercise glucose ingestion of two concentrations on paraplegic athletes

In this study, we assessed the influence that pre-exercise glucose ingestion of two concentrations has on the physiological responses of paraplegic athletes. Eight men with paraplegia ingested a drink containing 4% (low) or 11% (high) carbohydrate in a randomized double-blind crossover design, 20 min before exercise. The participants performed wheelchair exercise at 65% of peak oxygen uptake for 1 h followed by a 20 min performance test. During both trials, the physiological responses were similar and indicated steady-state exercise. At the onset of exercise, blood glucose concentrations in both trials increased after carbohydrate ingestion (P < 0.05) before returning to resting values after 20 min of exercise and there were no differences between trials. Free fatty acid concentrations increased from rest to 1 h of exercise in both trials, with a greater increase during the low carbohydrate trial that led to a difference in free fatty acids between trials at the end of the 1 h tests (P < 0.05). There was a tendency for the performance distances and power outputs achieved during the high carbohydrate trial to be greater than those achieved during the low carbohydrate trial (P = 0.08). In conclusion, when paraplegic athletes ingested low and high carbohydrate drinks before exercise, the decline in blood glucose concentrations was similar. The tendency for higher blood glucose concentrations, respiratory exchange ratios and power outputs and lower free fatty acid concentrations (P < 0.05) during the high carbohydrate trial suggests that a higher concentration of carbohydrate in a sports drink might be a better choice for paraplegic athletes.

Effects of spinal cord lesion level upon thermoregulation during exercise in the heat.

This study examined the effects of the level of spinal cord injury upon the thermoregulatory responses of wheelchair athletes during prolonged wheelchair exercise in warm conditions. Eight tetraplegic (TP), 10 high-level paraplegic (HP), and 10 low-level paraplegic (LP) athletes exercised for 60 min at 60% [OV0312]O(2peak) in a warm environment (31.5 +/- 1.7 degrees C, 42.9 +/- 8.0% relative humidity). Skin temperature and aural temperature were monitored. Aural temperature increased gradually during the exercise period by 1.1 +/- 0.3 and 1.4 +/- 0.5 degrees C for the HP and LP groups, with a more marked increase observed for the TP group (2.1 +/- 0.5 degrees C; P < 0.05). Upper-arm skin temperature was higher for the TP when compared with the HP and LP between 30 and 60 min (P < 0.05). Back skin temperature was higher for the TP when compared with the HP and LP between 45 and 60 min (P < 0.05). No differences were noted between groups for the thigh or calf skin temperatures. During recovery, skin temperature remained elevated for the TP group when compared with the HP and LP groups (P < 0.05). Heat storage was greatest for the TP athletes at the end of exercise and remained elevated throughout recovery (P < 0.05). All athletes completed the exercise task even though the gradual increase in aural temperature observed for the HP and LP groups suggests a degree of thermal imbalance. However, this was much less than observed for TP athletes, who demonstrated a much greater imbalance in temperature regulation. Increasing the exercise or environmental strain may result in the thermoregulatory responses of athletes with a spinal cord injury being compromised.