Paranormal Belief Scale Research Articles

The relationships among paranormal beliefs, locus of control and psychopathology in a Turkish college sample

The relationships among paranormal beliefs, locus of control and psychiatric symptomatology were investigated in a Turkish college sample of 350 participants (233 females and 117 males). The data were collected with the Turkish version of Tobacyks revised Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS-R), Rotters Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (IELOC), and Symptom Check List-90-Revised (SCL-90-R). Small but significant positive correlations between the global scores of PBS-R and IELOC Scale ( r = 0.31, P < 0.0001), PBS-R and SCL-90-R ( r = 0.14, P < 0.01), IELOC Scale and SCL-90-R ( r = 0.31, P < 0.0001) were found. PBS-R subscales predicted locus of control better than psychopathology in general. Correlations among the subscales of PBS-R and IELOC Scale were also reported. Females were significantly higher in Superstition, and males in Extraordinary Life Forms subscale. The discussion focussed on the role of paranormal beliefs as a personality system that brings a kind of control feeling, depending on insufficient internal control perceptions, with a cost of psychopathology.

Effect of restriction of working memory on reported paranormal belief.

56 college students completed Tobacyk's 1988 Revised Paranormal Belief Scale and Watson, Clark, and Tellegen's 1988 Positive and Negative Affect Scale. Experimental group participants, but not control group participants, rehearsed a five-digit number while completing the Paranormal Belief Scale. Analysis showed higher reported paranormal belief for experimental group participants but no differences on the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. Results are discussed in terms of the effect of restriction in working memory on the critical evaluation of paranormal phenomena.

Authoritarianism and Paranormal Beliefs

Eighty-five participants completed the Revised Paranormal Beliefs Scale (PBS [1]) and the Authoritarianism-Rebellion Scale (ARS [2]). Results indicate that authoritarianism is positively correlated with belief in the paranormal. No relationship between rebelliousness and belief in the paranormal was obtained. Women scored higher than men on five of the seven PBS subscales.

Belief in the paranormal and its association with irrational thinking controlled for context effects

A total of 814 students from two universities were given the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS) and the Irrational Beliefs Inventory (IBI) under three different testing conditions in order to observe the possible effects of context (see Council, 1993) on the association between these two measures. In one condition students received the questionnaires together as components of the same study. In another condition students were given one of the questionnaires first, followed by the second questionnaire approximately 2 weeks apart. The questionnaires were administered by the same investigator as if they were part of two different research projects. Students in the third condition also received each of the questionnaires 2 weeks apart as if they were part of two different research projects, but each questionnaire was administered by a different investigator. Although correlation coefficients between the two measures became weaker as a function of context controls, regression analyses revealed no statistically significant effects of context. When data from all three context conditions were combined, PBS' subscales of traditional religious belief, superstition, and precognition correlated significantly with a global measure of irrational thinking.

PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF PARANORMAL BELIEF: LOCUS OF CONTROL AND SENSATION SEEKING

In order to more fully understand the relationship between paranormal belief, locus of control, and sensation seeking, 81 undergraduate university students were administered the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS), Rotter's Locus of Control Scale, and the Sensation Seeking Scale. Results indicated that a greater external locus of control was associated with greater overall number of paranormal beliefs. Greater external locus of control was especially associated with the PBS subscales of spirituality and precognition. Contrary to expectations, belief in superstition was associated with a greater internal locus of control. Whereas overall sensation seeking was not related to overall PBS scores, the PBS subscales of greater belief in psi phenomena and superstition were found to be associated with higher levels of sensation seeking. Results are discussed in relation to conceptualizations of the different personality/belief constructs.

Dissociative experiences, trait anxiety and paranormal beliefs

The relationship between dissociative experiences, trait-anxiety and paranormal beliefs among students was investigated. Significant gender differences were found; females scored higher than males on the Dissociative Experience Scale (DES) by Bernstein and Putnam ( The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 727–735, 1986) and some subscales of the revised Paranormal Belief Scale by Tobacyk ( A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale, unpublished manusript, 1991), such as psi belief, witchcraft, superstition and precognition. Further analyses revealed that high scores in spiritualism and superstition, and a low score in psi beliefs, predicted the level of derpersonalization/derealization; whereas high scores in precognition, psi belief and superstition predicted absorption/amnesia. Finally, superstition was a significant predictor of trait anxiety. The discussion focusses on the role of dissociative experiences and paranormal beliefs for personality functioning.

Traditional Christian Beliefs, Spiritualism, and the Paranormal: An Icelandic--American Comparison

The relation among traditional Christian beliefs, spiritualism, and the paranor- mal was the subject of a factor-analytical study to compare religious-paranor- ma1 belief structures of samples in Iceland and the United States (Louisiana, Virginia, and Illinois). Tobacyk's 25-item Paranormal Belief Scale (Tohacyk and Milford, 1983) was administered to 349 Icelandic students. The same seven factors emerged in Iceland as in Louisiana but the strength of the various factors differed considerably among the two samples. The Traditional Religious Belief factor, which explained most of the variance in the Louisiana samples, was fifth in Iceland, where the Spiritualism factor emerged as the strongest but was fifth in the United States. The Psi factor showed comparable strength in both samples. The Icelandic sample revealed itself as less believing on all subscales (factors) except on the Spiritualism subscale where it was comparable to the U.S. sample.

Tobacyk's Paranormal Belief Scale and Temporal Lobe Signs: Sex Differences in the Experiences of Ego-Alien Intrusions

Tobacyk's Revised Paranormal Belief Scale and an inventory that infers temporal lobe signs were administered to 44 men and 54 women who were enrolled in first-year university courses. Women believed more in psi phenomena, witchcraft, and spiritualism than did men, who believed more in extraterrestrial life forms. Although complex partial epileptic-like signs were moderately (0.40) correlated with total beliefs for both sexes, these signs were dominated by experiences of ego-alien intrusions for women only. The results support the concept of greater interhemispheric coherence in women compared to men and emphasize the importance of limbic processes in the formation and maintenance of religious and paranormal beliefs.

Superstition and Self-Efficacy

The Revised Paranormal Belief Scale and the Self-efficacy Scale were completed by 180 university students. As hypothesized, greater belief in Superstition was associated with significantly less reported self-efficacy. Findings are consistent with past research showing linkages between superstitious belief and less effective personality functioning.

Paranormal Beliefs and Preference for Games of Chance

The Paranormal Belief Scale and six items concerning preference for games of chance were completed by 235 college students. As hypothesized, significant Pearson correlations were found for beliefs in Superstition, Psi, and Precognition with preference for games of chance.

Superstition and Beliefs about the Prediction of Future Events

The Paranormal Belief Scale and the Prediction of Future Events Scale were completed by 235 university students. As hypothesized, greater belief in Superstition was significantly associated with greater belief in two Prediction of Future Events dimensions, Paranormal Divinatory Procedures and Psychically Gifted Persons. Findings are consistent with the notion that susceptibility to illusory correlations is a cognitive process (i.e., bias or error) that underlies these relationships.

TOBACYK'S PARANORMAL BELIEF SCALE AND TEMPORAL LOBE SIGNS: SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE EXPERIENCES OF EGO-ALIEN INTRUSIONS

Tobacyk's Revised Paranormal Belief Scale and an inventory that infers temporal lobe signs were administered to 44 men and 54 women who were enrolled in first-year university courses. Women believed more in psi phenomena, witchcraft, and spiritualism than did men, who believed more in extraterrestrial life forms. Although complex partial epileptic-like signs were moderately (0.40) correlated with total beliefs for both sexes, these signs were dominated by experiences of ego-alien intrusions for women only. The results support the concept of greater interhemispheric coherence in women compared to men and emphasize the importance of limbic processes in the formation and maintenance of religious and paranormal beliefs.

Self-Monitoring as a Moderator of Relationships between Traditional Religious Belief and Personality Adjustment

211 college students completed the Self-monitoring Scale, the Traditional Religious Belief subscale of the Paranormal Belief Scale, and the Threat Index measure of death threat and self-esteem. As hypothesized, the low self-monitoring group showed the largest and only significant rs between Traditional Religious Belief and the two criteria—death threat and self-esteem. Findings are consistent with the notion that low self-monitors show greater dispositional/behavioral consistency.

Paranormal Beliefs and Beliefs about Lunar Effects

The Belief in Lunar Effects scale and the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale were given to 102 college students and 87 crisis center workers. Similar patterns of correlations between these scales were recorded for both samples. Belief in Lunar Effects scale scores showed significant direct correlations with belief in Psi, Extraordinary Life Forms, Witchcraft, Spiritualism, and Precognition.

Comparisons of Paranormal Beliefs of Black and White University Students from the Southern United States

Paranormal beliefs of 250 black and 208 white university students from the Southern United States were compared on the Paranormal Belief Scale. This sample of black students reported significantly greater belief than the sample of white students in Superstition, Witchcraft, Spiritualism, and Precognition. The white students showed significantly greater Traditional Religious Belief and belief in Extraordinary Life Forms. However, notwithstanding these significant group differences, both groups similarly reported “belief” in Traditional Religious Belief and in Precognition, while reporting “disbelief” in Psi, Witchcraft, Superstition, Spiritualism, and Extraordinary Life Forms.

Paranormal Beliefs and Locus of Control: A Multidimensional Examination

Relationships between paranormal beliefs and locus of control were studied, using multidimensional operationalizations of both constructs. The Paranormal Belief Scale and Paulhus's Spheres of Control Scale were administered to 349 introductory college students. As hypothesized, significant correlations showed predicted relationships between (a) greater personal efficacy control and less belief in superstition and witchcraft, and (b) greater interpersonal control and less belief in superstition.

Paranormal Beliefs in Late-Adulthood

71 members of a retirees' group ( M age = 68 yr.) in northern Louisiana completed the Paranormal Belief Scale. The elder sample showed significantly less belief than a university student comparison group on Psi, Witchcraft, Superstition, Spiritualism, Extraordinary Life Forms, and Precognition. Findings probably reflect both generational and developmental processes.

Beliefs about Complexity and Variability of Human Nature and Paranormal Beliefs

It was thought that the complexity and variability of a person's views of human nature might be related to the kinds of paranormal beliefs subscribed to. According to Wrightsman ( 1974, p. 4 5 ) , complexity and Variability are belief dimensions reflecting that, respectively ( 1 ) persons are complicated and difficult to understand and ( 2 ) persons are different in their basic natures. It was thought that less complex and variable beliefs about human nature might be associated with less complex paranormal beliefs, such as Superstition, Spiritualism, and Witchcraft. Further, it was thought that greater Complexity and Variability might be related to more complex paranormal beliefs such as Psi. The 28 items of the Complexity and Variability subscales from the Philosophies of Human Nature Scale (Wrightsman, 1974) and the Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) were given to 89 male and 74 female college students of an intact class whose mean age was 19.2 yr. (SD = 1.7). Scoring for Wrightsman's items was changed from + 3 to -3 to G to 1. For Complexity, mean scores and SDs were 57.3 and 10.2 and for Variability, 44.4 and 12.1. Generally, these predictions were not supported. Neither Complexity nor Variability showed significant correlations with any of the paranormal dimensions. Two nonsignificant trends showed weak relationships between greater Complexity and Psi Belief ( r = .13, p < .08) and between less Variability and Traditional Religious Belief ( I . = -.14, p < .06). All other correlations ranged from -.07 to .06. It appears that beliefs about the Complexity and Variability of human nature are not related to paranormal beliefs.

Mental health, belief deficit compensation, and paranormal beliefs.

The present study examined the relationship between religious and nonreligious paranormal beliefs and mental health, as well as the possibility that nonreligious subjects compensate for a lack of identification with traditional religion by increased nonreligious paranormal beliefs. Subjects were 80 undergraduates categorized as religious or nonreligious on the basis of scores on the Traditional Religion subscale of the Paranormal Belief Scale. Religious subjects had significantly higher total paranormal belief scores than nonreligious subjects. Those adopting religious paranormal beliefs were actually somewhat more likely to adopt other nonreligious paranormal beliefs. The failure of nonreligious subjects to compensate fully for this traditional religious belief deficit was reflected in their mental health ratings on the Langer's Mental Health Scale (Langer, 1962). Paranormal beliefs were found to be negatively correlated with reported symptoms of psychopathology, supporting the formulation that paranormal beliefs may serve to ensure psychic integrity by acting as "self-serving cognitive biases."

Paranormal Belief and Jungian Dimensions of Personality

Murphy and Lester (1976) reported that belief in ESP was associated with feeling scores on the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator. To explore this association further, a modified paranormal belief scale (Tobacyk, 1982) and the Keirsey-Bates inventory (Keirsey & Bates, 1984) which measures four basic Jungian traits were administered to 37 male and 29 female students, aged 18 to 22 yr. and enrolled in college classes (M,,, = 18.8 yr., SD = 1.0). Mean scores and SDs were for extraversion 6.5 and 2.1, for sensing 10.2 and 3.9, for thinking 8.2 and 4.1, and for judging 11.0 and 4.6. Extraversion-introversion scores were not related to any type of paranormal belief. Feeling scores were significantly correlated with belief in psi (Pearson s = 0.38),? precognition (r = 0.34), and pseudosciences (such as palm reading and astrology) (r = 0.35). Perceiving scores were significantly associated with belief in psi (r = 0.33) and witchcraft (r = 0.25). However, the largest set of correlations were with intuitive scores, belief in psi (r = 0.40), witchcraft (7 = 0.24), spiritualism (r = 0.37), precognition (r = 0.)5), and pseudosciences (r = 0.24). Measures of religious and superscicious beliefs did not correlate with the personality test scores. These results indicate that belief in paranormal phenomenon is stronger in those who stress feeling over thinking, perceiving over judging, and intuiting over sensing, which suggests that believers are less logical and more open-minded than nonbelievers.