Parallel Process Latent Growth Modeling Research Articles

Sex-specific co-developmental trajectories of childhood victimization among elementary school students: Relations to social behavior

This study aimed to identify sex-specific co-developmental trajectories of multiple forms of childhood victimization: family maltreatment (FM), psychological maltreatment by teachers (PMT), and peer victimization (PV), and their relations to prosocial and delinquent behaviors among elementary school students. A total of 4378 Chinese elementary school students (Mage = 9.93; SD = 0.92; 55.14% boys) participated in assessments on five occasions, using six-month intervals. Parallel process latent class growth model analyses revealed three trajectories for boys: Congruent-low (75.64%), High-PV, Moderate-FM and PMT (14.62%), and Moderate-PV, High-FM and PMT (9.74%). Similarly, girls exhibited three trajectories: Congruent-low (81.11%), Moderate-PMT, High-FM and PV (10.54%), and High-PMT, Moderate-FM and PV (8.35%). The results indicated that boys were more susceptible than girls to three forms of childhood victimization. Furthermore, boys were especially vulnerable to co-occurring FM and PMT. In contrast, girls were more vulnerable to co-occurring FM and PV. Additionally, after experiencing childhood victimization, girls showed a greater hindrance in prosocial behavior development, whereas boys exhibited a more significant increase in delinquent behavior. These findings underscore the importance of considering sex differences in understanding multiple forms of childhood victimization and provide important insights for prevention and intervention efforts.

Longitudinal Relationships Among Child School Engagement, Parental Monitoring, and Child Prosocial Behavior: A Child-Parent Synergistic Mechanism.

Numerous contextual factors have been identified that impact the development of children's prosocial behavior, yet the influence of child-initiated factors on prosocial behavior and its underlying mechanism remains unclear. This study employed three longitudinal models to examine in depth how children's school engagement may promote the development of their own prosocial behavior. Three-wave longitudinal data from 4691 children (M age = 9.480, SD = 0.507; 48.2% female) with 2-year intervals were used. Sequentially, a cross-lagged panel model, a random intercept cross-lagged panel model, and a parallel process latent growth model were constructed. The findings indicated that children's school engagement consistently predicted the future level, dynamic changes at within-person level, and long-term trends in their prosocial behavior, and these longitudinal relationships were partially mediated by parental monitoring. These results reveal a child-parent synergistic mechanism for the development of prosocial behavior, wherein children's school engagement both directly promotes their own prosocial behavior and simultaneously enhances prosocial behavior through eliciting increased parental monitoring.

Short-term mindsets show co-development with adolescent delinquency, but not with adolescent cannabis use.

Guided by General Theory of Crime and Psychosocial Maturity Hypothesis, we investigated co-development between short-term mindsets (impulsivity and future orientation) and risk behaviors (cannabis use and delinquency). Parallel process latent growth modeling on three-wave data from ethnically diverse Swiss adolescents (N = 1365; Mage 13.67 years, 48.6% female), showed baseline-level associations between short-term mindsets and risk behaviors, and between the two risk behaviors. Additionally, correlated change (co-development) existed between short-term mindsets-particularly impulsivity-and delinquency, but not between short-term mindsets and cannabis use. These results support the above-mentioned theories and emphasize the importance of investigating the correlates of change in delinquency and cannabis use separately, as divergent findings might emerge. These divergent findings could partially stem from Switzerland's liberal views on cannabis use.

Internet addiction and depressive symptoms in adolescents: joint trajectories and predictors.

Internet addiction and depressive symptoms are common mental health problems in adolescents. Due to the comorbidity of Internet addiction and depressive symptoms, their mutual relationship influences their developmental trajectories over time. Thus, this study aimed to identify the joint trajectories of Internet addiction and depressive symptoms, and examined the individual, family, and school antecedents of these trajectories among Chinese adolescents. Using a battery of self-report scales, three waves of data collection were conducted in a Chinese adolescent sample (N = 1,301). The co-developmental trajectories of Internet addiction and depressive symptoms were extracted by adopting parallel-process latent class growth modeling (PPLCGM). Multinomial logistic regression was performed to assess predictive factors. Four unique joint trajectory classes were detected: the Health Group (n = 912, 70.1%), Comorbidity-Worsening Group (n = 85, 6.5%), Asymptomatic-Comorbid Risk Group (n = 148, 11.4%), and Prominent Depressive Symptoms-Remission Group (n = 156, 12.0%). Individual, family, and school factors (e.g., gender, positive youth development, family function, academic performance) significantly predicted the membership in these distinct co-developmental trajectories. Our findings illustrate that the joint development of Internet addiction and depressive symptoms among adolescents presents a heterogeneous distribution, which could better inform prevention and intervention strategies since each co-developmental trajectory may represent unique experience for adolescents who need targeted treatment. Various individual, family, and school factors are important predictors that play different roles in distinguishing the joint trajectories of Internet addiction and depressive symptoms during this critical developmental transition period.

Developmental Trajectories of Mental Health in Chinese Early Adolescents: School Climate and Future Orientation as Predictors.

There is growing support for the dual-continua model of mental health, which emphasizes psychopathology and well-being as related but distinct dimensions. Yet, little is known about how these dimensions co-develop from childhood to early adolescence and what factors predict their different trajectories. The current study aimed to identify distinct patterns of mental health in Chinese early adolescents, focusing on both psychopathological symptoms (i.e., depressive symptoms and self-harm behaviors) and subjective well-being (i.e., life satisfaction and affect balance). This study also examined the contributions of school climate and future orientation to these trajectories. A total of 1,057 students (Mage = 11.88, SDage = 1.67; 62.1% boys) completed four assessments over two years, with six-month intervals. Using parallel-process latent class growth modeling, we identified four groups: Flourishing (32.5%), Languishing (43.8%), Troubled with Stable Depressive Symptoms (16.1%), and Troubled with Increasing Self-Harm Risk (7.6%). Furthermore, school climate and future orientation contributed to adolescents' membership in these trajectories, either independently or jointly. Specifically, higher levels of future orientation combined with higher school climate were associated with a lower likelihood of belonging to the Troubled with Increasing Self-Harm Risk trajectory, compared to the Flourishing group. Our findings identified four distinct mental health trajectories consistent with the dual-continua model, and demonstrated that the development of psychopathology and well-being were not always inversely related (e.g., the Languishing group). Adolescents with unique developmental profiles may benefit from tailored intervention strategies that build on the personal and environmental assets of the adolescent.

A Longitudinal Study of the Effect of Memory on the Quality of life of European Adults and Older Adults

Among studies conceptualizing quality of life (QoL) as the subjective measure of one’s well-being, evidence suggests a link between cognitive impairment and diminished quality of life. However, the direction of the association is not clear, and most studies have employed a global measure of cognition, which can mask subtle domain-specific declines. In this study, we aim at examining the longitudinal associations between memory and QoL in a representative sample of adults and older adults in Europe and Israel, employing data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). The sample was composed by 56,616 respondents aged 50 or older at the beginning of the study period. A Parallel-Process Latent Growth Model (PP LGM) of memory and QoL conditioned on the effects of age, gender, educational level, physical inactivity, depressive symptomatology and social activity participation, was tested. Results displayed a trajectory of decline for both memory and QoL, with higher initial levels of memory associated with higher initial levels of QoL, and steeper decline in memory associated with steeper decline in QoL. Moreover, a positive effect of initial memory onto QoL trend over time was found, indicating that better memory is associated to better QoL in the future, but the opposite did not occur. Results also provide evidence of gender differences. All in all, this work found evidence supporting the longitudinal effect of memory on QoL, which may have consequences for intervention implementation, given that actions for alleviating age-related memory impairment could also have a positive impact onto older adults’ QoL.

Co-developmental trajectories of suicidal ideation and non-suicidal self-injury among Chinese adolescents: Transdiagnostic predictors and association with suicide attempts.

Adolescent suicidal ideation (SI) and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) are crucial public health issues, yet their co-developmental trajectories during early adolescence and their associations with predictors and outcomes are unclear. This study aimed to (a) identify heterogeneous co-developmental trajectories of SI and NSSI, (b) explore associations between transdiagnostic predictors and trajectories, and (c) assess suicide attempt risk across trajectories. Four hundred fifty-three adolescents (Mage = 12.35 years, 48.3% boys) completed surveys at 6-month intervals across 2 years. At Time 1 (Nov 2020), participants completed surveys encompassing SI, and NSSI, along with family, peer, and individual predictors. Subsequent surveys (Times 2-4) measured SI and NSSI, with suicide attempts queried at Time 4. Parallel process latent class growth models revealed three co-developmental groups (i.e., Stable low NSSI and SI; Moderate-NSSI and high-SI, parallel decreasing; High-NSSI and moderate-SI, parallel increasing). Multivariate logistic regression indicated that group membership was predicted by parental rejection, parental warmth, bullying victimization, depressive and anxiety symptoms, thwarted belongingness, and perceived burdensomeness. Adolescents in the "High-NSSI and moderate-SI, parallel increasing" group reported the highest suicide attempt frequency. These findings underscore subgroup distinctions and transdiagnostic predictors in comprehending SI and NSSI progression, emphasizing the necessity of dynamic monitoring and tailored interventions for distinct subgroup characteristics.

Inequalities in out-of-home care rates in England: Does local party politics matter?

BackgroundInequalities in the proportion of children experiencing abuse and neglect or a children's social care intervention have become a research focus in the last decade. One almost unexplored factor of growth in rates of children in out-of-home care is local party politics. ObjectiveWe assessed whether growth in rates of out-of-home care in England varied by local authority party political control. MethodsWe collated administrative data on the 152 local authorities in England between 2015 and 2021. We used Bayesian parallel process latent growth models to assess whether growth in rates of children in care in English local authorities has been equal across Labour, Conservative, No Overall Control, and no political majority councils before and after adjusting for trends in child poverty, household income from employment, and expenditure on preventative services. ResultsPrior to adjusting for trends in child poverty, average household income, and expenditure, we find little evidence for differences in trends; once adjusted, we find that trends in Labour authorities were lower (−1.125 children looked after per 10,000 per year) than in Conservative authorities. Had growth in family and local authority economic factors remained constant, our findings suggested out-of-home care rates would have, on average, been stable or decreasing in Labour local authorities but would have continued to rise elsewhere. ConclusionsThe contribution of local party politics to growing rates of out-of-home care remains under-theorised and under-researched, but there are potentially substantial differences along party lines that are masked by unequal exposure to changes in poverty.

Parallel processes of posttraumatic stress and cardiometabolic dysfunction: A systemic illness of traumatic stress.

To determine if and how cardiometabolic conditions (MetC) may be associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms over time when controlling for the influence of potentially confounding variables. Parallel process latent growth modeling was applied to self-reported longitudinal data collected from 35,788 World Trade Center 9/11 survivors to determine how the development and course of PTSD symptoms and MetC influence each other when controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, preexisting traumas, physical health problems, general psychological distress, smoking, and alcohol use. A unidirectional relationship was found in which the intercept of PTSD symptoms predicted the slope of MetC. Hyperarousal (β = .172) and emotional numbing (β = .171) PTSD symptoms demonstrated the strongest association with MetC changes over and above the effects of control variables and potential confounders. Post hoc analyses indicated that utilization of PTSD-related psychotherapy was associated with decreased early presentations of MetC following trauma, which may have vital implications for the integrated treatment of trauma-exposed individuals. Findings have strong theoretical and clinical implications for conceptualizing traumatic stress reactions as systemic processes and utilizing integrated treatment practices following psychological trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Global and domain-specific self-esteem from middle childhood to early adolescence: Co-developmental trajectories and directional relations.

The study used both person-centered (i.e., parallel process latent class growth modeling) and variable-centered (i.e., random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling) approaches to examine developmental changes in global and domain-specific self-esteem from middle childhood to early adolescence. A total of 715 Chinese youth participated (54.3% boys; 45.7% girls; Mage = 9.96; SD = 0.51) in a 6-wave longitudinal study with 6-month intervals. Parallel process latent class growth modeling identified three co-developmental trajectories of global and domain-specific self-esteem: Congruent high increasing and then flattening global and domain-specific self-esteem, congruent moderate domain-specific self-esteem with convex global self-esteem, and congruent low with concave appearance and global self-esteem. Results from random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling found reciprocal within-person associations between academic self-esteem and global self-esteem; global self-esteem significantly predicted social self-esteem, while physical appearance self-esteem significantly predicted global self-esteem. Evidence was provided for top-down and bottom-up effects of self-esteem among Chinese youth. The findings provided new insight into the development of self-esteem in youth.

The longitudinal association between children's growth mindset in senior primary school and their parents' growth mindset.

Growth mindset plays a positive role in children's development, but few studies use longitudinal data to investigate the developmental trajectory of children's growth mindset. In addition, previous studies have shown that there may be no intergenerational transmission of mindset, but the influence of parents' growth mindset on the development and change of children's growth mindset cannot be denied. Based on the abovementioned factors, the present study used a sample of fourth-grade primary school students and their parents in Beijing (N = 4,004), and five waves of longitudinal data over two-and-a-half years were collected to identify the trajectories of growth mindset in senior primary school with latent growth modeling and to examine the effects of parents' growth mindset with a parallel process latent growth model. The results showed the following. (1) The growth mindset of the senior primary school children decreased over time, and there were significant individual differences in the initial level and growth of mindset. (2) Children in senior primary school showed higher levels of growth mindset after two-and-a-half years if their mothers reported higher levels of growth mindset in the beginning. Children showed higher levels of growth mindset after two-and-a-half years if their mothers' growth mindset declined slower during this period, while they showed lower levels if their mothers' growth mindset declined rapidly; when the mothers' growth mindset declines, the children's growth mindset would also show a downward trend during this time. Finally, (3) there was no significant relationship between both the initial level and the decline of the father's growth mindset and the development pattern of the children's growth mindset.

One stream, two channels? A parallel-process latent class growth model of homicide rates and suicide rates in 183 countries, between 2000 and 2019

BackgroundSuicide and homicide have long been viewed in Western culture as moral, ethical and legal equivalents. This view has underpinned many theoretical and empirical explorations into their relationship over the centuries. However, there has been little evaluation of longitudinal heterogeneity. MethodsSuicide and homicide rates in 183 countries between 2000 and 2019 were collected from the World Health Organization Global Health Observatory Repository. Corresponding structural variables (i.e., GDP per capita, unemployment rate, percentage of urban population, percentage of elderly population, and Gini index) were acquired from The World Bank and Standardized World Income Inequality Database. Parallel-process latent class growth modelling was applied to identify different classes within the joint suicide and homicide rate trajectories. Multinomial logistic regression examined relationships between the structural covariates and trajectory classes. ResultsFour trajectory classes were identified, two with inverse relationships between suicide and homicide, and two with parallel relationships: 1) countries with increasing suicide rates and decreasing homicide rates (“suicide up, homicide down”: UD, n = 41) or 2) countries with decreasing suicide rates and increasing homicide rates (“suicide down, homicide up”: DU, n = 17); and 3) countries where suicide and homicide rates both trended up (UU, n = 19), or 4) both trended down (DD, n = 106). A higher average annual growth rate (AAGR) of GDP per capita was related to an increased possibility of being in DD than in DU. Countries with higher AAGR in unemployment rates were more likely to be in UD and UU than in DD, while those with higher AAGR in urbanization were less likely to be in UD than in DD. ConclusionThe over-time relationship between suicide and homicide is heterogenous and complex. It is influenced differently by GDP per capita, urbanization and unemployment in different countries, and it is not well described by a single theory.

Co-developmental trajectories of aggression and rule-breaking from middle childhood to early adolescence: individual and environmental predictors.

This study examined the heterogeneous co-developmental trajectories of aggression and rule-breaking from middle childhood to early adolescence, as well as how these identified, distinct trajectories related to individual and environmental predictors. A total of 1944 Chinese elementary school students in grade 4 (45.5% girls, Mage = 10.06, SD = 0.57) completed measures on five occasions across two and a half years, using six-month intervals. Findings included: (a) Parallel process latent class growth modeling revealed four distinct co-developmental trajectory groups of aggression and rule-breaking: congruent-low (84.0%); moderate-decreasing aggression and high-decreasing rule-breaking (3.8%); moderate-increasing aggression (5.9%); and moderate-increasing rule-breaking (6.3%); (b) Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that children belonging to the high risk groups were more likely to experience multiple individual and environmental difficulties. Implications for prevention of aggression and rule-breaking were discussed.

Developmental trajectories of Korean and heritage language proficiencies and their association with maladjustment among Korean multicultural adolescents.

This study identified changes in Korean and heritage language proficiencies across five waves (2011-2015) and examined the association between linguistic acculturation trajectories and adjustment (2016) among Korean adolescents with immigrant family backgrounds (N=1441; 51.21% female; Mage(baseline) =9.97). All adolescents were from multiethnic families with 91.65% comprising a non-Korean Asian mother (e.g., Japan, Philippines, China, Thailand) and Korean father. Parallel process latent class growth modeling and multivariate regression analysis were conducted to estimate the trajectories of linguistic acculturation and their effects on adolescents' future adjustment. Linguistic acculturation trajectories were classified into three latent groups. Bilingual adolescents demonstrated better adjustment over adolescents in other trajectories. Findings highlight the importance of considering patterns of change in linguistic acculturation for understanding Korean multicultural adolescents' adjustment.

Parallel Process Latent Growth Modeling with Multivariate Confounders/Suppressors

A parallel process growth model is often limited to the developments of two main trends due to model complexity. Two major parallel processes are only modeled to examine how the changes in two longitudinal processes might be related without considering other growth models possibly related to the two main processes. However, the exclusion of a third LGM risks introducing bias into key associations while capturing the relations between only two growth processes, since they are not controlled. This study presents a method to address the effect of spurious relationship while minimizing convergence issues when other processes are not considered. The suggested method utilizes the factor score estimates for other relevant growth models to control the spurious effect. Results revealed the superiority of the parallel process model using the factor scores over the typical parallel process model and illustrated the importance of considering growth models relevant to the parallel process model.

Joint developmental trajectories and temporal precedence of physical function decline and cognitive deterioration: A longitudinal population-based study.

ObjectivesPrevious studies primarily explored the unidirectional impact of cognition on physical function. However, the interplay between physical function and cognition and the temporal precedence in their predictive relationships have not been elucidated. We explored the bidirectional mechanism between physical function and cognition in a longitudinal dataset.Materials and methodsA total of 1,365 participants in the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey assessed physical function and cognition in 2011 (T1), 2014 (T2), and 2018 (T3) by the Katz scale and the Chinese version of the Mini-Mental State Examination scale, respectively. Changes in the trajectories of physical function and cognition were examined using the latent growth model. The correlational and reciprocal relationships between physical function and cognition were examined using the parallel process latent growth model and autoregressive cross-lagged (ARCL) models.ResultsCognition and physical function decreased by an average of 0.096 and 0.017 points per year, respectively. Higher physical function was associated with better cognition at baseline (r = 0.237, p < 0.05), and longitudinal changes in physical function and cognition were positively correlated (r = 0.756, p < 0.05). ARCL analysis indicated that physical function at T1 positively predicted T2 cognitive function. However, this predictive relationship reversed between T2 and T3, whereby cognitive function at T2 predicted physical function at T3.ConclusionBoth physical function and cognition declined over time. Early identification and intervention in physical dysfunction among older adults could be critical to prevent further cognitive impairment and maintain functional independence. Hence, regular functional assessment and individualized care plans are required to achieve healthy aging.

Trajectories of Students’ Writing Feedback Attitudes

Students’ acceptance and use of feedback to improve their writing may be influenced by their attitudes toward receiving such feedback. In the present study, we investigated the trajectories of students’ attitudes toward receiving feedback on their writing from teachers and peers in Grades 3–7. Data were collected from 1,071 students in the fall of three consecutive academic years using a cohort-sequential design. Results indicate that students have a generally positive attitude toward receiving writing feedback by both peers and teachers at all grades. However, results of parallel process latent growth modeling suggest that these attitudes decline annually between third and seventh grade. Further, both trajectories seem to shift between fifth and sixth grade, suggesting different processes between Grades 3–5 and Grades 5–7. Finally, female students tended to like receiving feedback from teachers and peers more than their male peers.

Gender-specific co-developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from middle childhood to early adolescence: Environmental and individual predictors.

This study aimed to identify gender-specific co-developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from middle childhood to early adolescence, along with key environmental and individual predictors among Chinese youth. A total of 1653 Chinese elementary school students (M age = 9.40; SD = 0.51; 54.57% boys) participated in assessments at six time points, using 6-month assessment intervals. Parallel process latent class growth modeling identified four trajectories for boys: Congruent-low (65.74%), moderate-decreasing internalizing and moderate-stable externalizing problems (18.40%), high increasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems (8.20%), and high decreasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems (7.65%). Three trajectories were identified for girls: Congruent-low (81.09%), moderate co-occurring (7.19%), and high increasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems (11.72%). Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that peer victimization served as an environmental risk predictor for the adverse co-developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems for boys and girls. High sensation-seeking and low self-control served as individual risk variables predicting the trajectories of high increasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems, and low self-control also predicted the trajectories of high decreasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems for boys. The findings highlight the importance of gender differences in understanding the progression of internalizing and externalizing problems and inform effective strategies for prevention and intervention.

Joint trajectories of loneliness, depressive symptoms, and social anxiety from middle childhood to early adolescence: associations with suicidal ideation.

This study examined the joint trajectories of loneliness, depressive symptoms, and social anxiety from middle childhood to early adolescence and their associations with suicidal ideation. A total of 643 Chinese elementary school students (55.2% male; Mage = 9.01; SD = 0.75; range = 7 to 11years at T1) completed measures on six occasions at 6-month intervals. Parallel process latent class growth models revealed five distinct trajectories of loneliness, depressive symptoms, and social anxiety: "congruent-low" (45.1%), "moderately low with predominant loneliness and depressive symptoms" (15.7%), "moderate with predominant loneliness and depressive symptoms" (4.2%), "moderately low with predominant social anxiety" (24.9%), and "congruent-high" (10.1%). The highest suicidal ideation was observed among adolescents who persistently experienced two or three symptoms, followed by those who persistently experienced one predominant symptom, and finally, adolescents who persistently experienced low levels of all three symptoms. The findings highlight the importance of individual differences considerations in understanding the joint patterns of loneliness, depressive symptoms, and social anxiety among youth during the transition into adolescence and the need for more sophisticated intervention programs tailored to the unique characteristics of the relevant trajectories to reduce the risk of suicidal ideation.

Co-developmental trajectories of interpersonal relationships in middle childhood to early adolescence: Associations with traditional bullying and cyberbullying

This study explored the co-developmental trajectories of three different interpersonal relationship types (parent, teacher, and peer) and their relations to bullying behaviors (i.e., traditional bullying perpetration/victimization and cyberbullying perpetration/victimization) during middle childhood to early adolescence. A total of 4154 Chinese elementary school students in grades 3 and 4 (54.8% boy; Mage = 9.90, SD = 0.72) participated in assessments at five time points, using 6-month assessment intervals. Analyses were conducted using parallel process latent class growth modeling. Five distinct interpersonal relationship groups were identified: congruent-low group, congruent-high increasing group, congruent-moderate group, low mother–child relationships group, and low decreasing teacher–student relationships group. The identification of these patterns yielded a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of the developmental patterns of interpersonal relationships during this age period. Furthermore, the five co-developmental patterns of interpersonal relationships differentially associated with traditional bullying and cyberbullying, implying the need for intervention programs to be tailored to members of specific groups to reduce traditional bullying and cyberbullying.