Training Paradigm Research Articles

Influence of eccentric strength of knee extensor muscles on biomechanical factors of a vertical drop jump

During a vertical drop jump (VDJ), the human neuromuscular system absorbs and reuses external loads applied to the lower extremity by coordinating the musculoskeletal system. This study aims to investigate the influence of the eccentric strength of the knee extensor muscles on the biomechanical factors of a VDJ. Participants were divided into two groups based on the eccentric strength of their knee extension muscles: low eccentric (LECC) and high eccentric (HECC) strength groups. The VDJ joint kinematics and kinetics of the lower extremity, the fascicle behavior of the vastus lateralis, and the muscle activation of the knee extensor muscles were simultaneously recorded during maximum-effort VDJ. Compared with the LECC group, the HECC group showed a higher jump, greater knee and ankle joint stiffness, and smaller fascicle length change. These findings suggest that the eccentric strength capacity of the knee extensor muscles accounts for the different biomechanical strategies (bouncing-type for HECC and absorbing-type for LECC) observed between the groups. Consequently, the eccentric strength of the knee extensor muscle may be an essential factor in determining the biomechanical strategy for VDJ and should be considered in the jumping performance enhancement training paradigm.

Semi-Automated Training of Rat Ultrasonic Vocalizations.

Rats produce ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) for conspecific communication. These USVs are valuable biomarkers for studying behavioral and mechanistic changes in a variety of diseases and disorders. Previous work has demonstrated operant conditioning can progressively increase the number of USVs produced by rats over multiple weeks. This operant conditioning paradigm is a useful model for investigating the effects of increased laryngeal muscle use on USV acoustic characteristics and underlying central and peripheral laryngeal sensorimotor mechanisms. Previous USV operant conditioning studies relied on manual training to elicit USV productions, which is both time and labor intensive and can introduce human variability. This manuscript introduces a semi-automated method for training rats to increase their rate of USV production by pairing commercially available operant conditioning equipment with an ultrasonic detection system. USV training requires three basic components: elicitation cue, detection of the behavior, and a reward to reinforce the desired behavior. With the semi-automated training paradigm, indirect exposure to the opposite sex or an olfactory cue can be used to elicit USV production. The elicited USV is then automatically detected by the ultrasonic acoustic system, which consequently triggers the release of a sucrose pellet reward. Our results demonstrate this semi-automated procedure produces a similar increase in USV production as the manual training method. Through automation of USV detection and reward administration, staffing requirements, human error, and subject behavioral variability may be minimized while scalability and reproducibility are increased. This automation may also result in greater experimental flexibility, allowing USV training paradigms to become more customizable for a wider array of applications. This semi-automated USV behavioral training paradigm improves upon manual training techniques by increasing the ease, speed, and quality of data collection.

Characterization of Reflective Capacity of Anesthesiology Trainees in an Irish Tertiary Referral Teaching Hospital.

Reflective practice is associated with improved accuracy of medical diagnosis and superior performance in complex situations. Systematic observation of trainees' reflective capacities constitutes a basis for an effective support of reflective practice within the training paradigm. We set out to examine the reflective capacity among anesthesiology trainees in a tertiary referral hospital. We invited 61 anesthesiology trainees in Cork University Hospitals, Ireland, to participate. Each trainee was invited to respond to 2 investigator-written vignettes prepared by the investigators and suitable for evaluation using the Reflection Evaluation for Learners' Enhanced Competencies Tool (REFLECT) and to produce and then respond to a written vignette based on their own experience. All responses were assessed by 2 independent assessors who had undergone training in the application of the REFLECT rubric, which gives quantifiable scores. Interrater reliability was assessed by weighted kappa coefficient. Association between years of training in medicine and level of reflective capacity was examined using correlation and multiple regression analyses, controlling for age. Twenty-nine trainees agreed to participate, the overall REFLECT Level was 2.16 (SD 0.7), corresponding to "thoughtful action," indicating low to moderate reflective ability. Cronbach's alpha for the 5 items of the REFLECT scale was excellent (r = 0.92). Weighted kappa was very satisfactory (k = 0.81). A strong association was demonstrated between years in medicine and scores on REFLECT, controlling for age of participant (F = -2.57, Beta coefficient = -0.30). Respondents with less experience had greater mean REFLECT scores than respondents with more experience (F = 5.5, P = .02; post hoc mean difference = 0.7, P = .03 for ≤32 months vs ≥99 months). There was a significant effect for gender (t = -4.3, P = .001), with women's responses receiving greater REFLECT scores than men's responses (mean difference = 0.67, P = .001). Overall, participants demonstrated low to moderate reflective capacity, as assessed by the REFLECT rubric. Reflective capacity of the anesthesiology trainees appears to decrease as years of medical training progress. However, our respondents were not sampled over time to fully support this conclusion. Further research is needed on the psychometric properties of the REFLECT rubric and the generalizability of our findings.

New Paradigm in Neurosurgical Training

New Paradigm in Neurosurgical Training

Training of academic lawyers for implementation of high-tech research projects (“Digital Law”, “Megascience” and “Lex genetica” projects case study)

The legal profession has both conservative and innovative features. On the one hand, present-day lawyers are the heirs of the centuries-old tradition of global jurisprudence. On the other hand, the technological challenges of the external environment inevitably transform not only the legal map of the world, but also the peculiarities of training for modern legal professionals. The article deals with the main transformational paradigms of legal professionals training, using the example of three high-tech spheres of public life – genetics, digital economy and mega-science installations development. Academic lawyers (legal scholars) are in many ways at the forefront of the present-day jurisprudence, defining both the present and the future of the global legal space. Their training takes longer than the standard education course for lawyers. The data of the Russian legal system and the legal systems of other countries, as well as international legal practice, served as the empirical basis for the research.

Do Children Use Multi-Word Information in Real-Time Sentence Comprehension?

Meaning in language emerges from multiple words, and children are sensitive to multi-word frequency from infancy. While children successfully use cues from single words to generate linguistic predictions, it is less clear whether and how they use multi-word sequences to guide real-time language processing and whether they form predictions on the basis of multi-word information or pairwise associations. We address these questions in two visual-world eye-tracking experiments with 5- to 8-year-old children. In Experiment 1, we asked whether children generate more robust predictions for the sentence-final object of highly frequent sequences (e.g., "Throw the ball"), compared to less frequent sequences (e.g., "Throw the book"). We further examined if gaze patterns reflect event knowledge or phrasal frequency by comparing the processing of phrases that have the same event structure but differ in multi-word content (e.g., "Brush your teeth" vs. "Brush her teeth"). In the second study, we employed a training paradigm to ask if children are capable of generating predictio.ns from novel multi-word associations while controlling for the overall frequency of the sequences. While the results of Experiment 1 suggested that children primarily relied on event associations to generate real-time predictions, those of Experiment 2 showed that the same children were able to use recurring novel multi-word sequences to generate real-time linguistic predictions. Together, these findings suggest that children can draw on multi-word information to generate linguistic predictions, in a context-dependent fashion, and highlight the need to account for the influence of multi-word sequences in models of language processing.

Effects of Spatial Training Paradigms on Auditory Spatial Refinement in Normal-Hearing Listeners: A Comparative Study.

Background and ObjectivesThis study compared the effectiveness of two spatial training programs using real and virtual sound sources in refining spatial acuity skills in listeners with normal hearing.Subjects and MethodsThe study was conducted on two groups of 10 participants each; groups I and II underwent spatial training using real and virtual sound sources, respectively. The study was conducted in three phases: pre-training, training, and post-training phases. At the pre- and post-training phases, the spatial acuity of the participants was measured using real sound sources through the localization test, and virtual sound sources through the virtual acoustic space identification (VASI) test. The thresholds of interaural time difference (ITD) and interaural level difference (ILD) were also measured. In the training phase, Group I participants underwent localization training using loudspeakers in free field, while participants in Group II were subjected to virtual acoustic space (VAS) training using virtual sound sources from headphones. Both the training methods consisted of 5-8 sessions (20 min each) of systematically presented stimuli graded according to duration and back attenuation (for real source training) or number of VAS locations (for virtual source training).ResultsResults of independent t-scores comparing the spatial learning scores (pre vs. post-training) for each measure showed differences in performance between the two groups. Group II performed better than Group I on the VASI test, while the Group I out-performed Group II on the ITD. Both groups improved equally on the localization test and ILD.ConclusionsBased on the present findings, we recommend the use of VAS training as it has practical implications due to its cost effectiveness, need for minimal equipment, and end user usefulness.

Training the pronunciation of L2 vowels under different conditions: the use of non-lexical materials and masking noise.

The current study extends traditional perceptual high-variability phonetic training (HVPT) in a foreign language learning context by implementing a comprehensive training paradigm that combines perception (discrimination and identification) and production (immediate repetition) training tasks and by exploring two potentially enhancing training conditions: the use of non-lexical training stimuli and the presence of masking noise during production training. We assessed training effects on L1-Spanish/Catalan bilingual EFL learners' production of a difficult English vowel contrast (/æ/-/ʌ/). The participants (N=62) were randomly assigned to either non-lexical (N=24) or lexical (N=24) training and were further subdivided into two groups, one trained in noise (N=12) and one in silence (N=12). An untrained control group (N=14) was also tested. Training gains, measured through spectral distance scores (Euclidean distances) with respect to native speakers' productions of /æ/ and /ʌ/, were assessed through delayed word and sentence repetition tasks. The results showed an advantage of non-lexical training over lexical training, detrimental effects of noise for participants trained with nonwords, but not for those trained with words, and less accurate production of vowels elicited in isolated words than in words embedded in sentences, where training gains were only observable for participants trained with nonwords.

Insights from the thoracic surgery residents association early-career development series

Insights from the thoracic surgery residents association early-career development series

When Faculty Tell Tales: How Faculty Members' Reflective Narratives Impact Residents' Professional Identity Formation.

Most training programs have focused on the explicit teaching of professionalism, an approach that has seen limited success, to transform trainees into physicians. It is possible that faculty members' reflective narratives, if appropriately shared with trainees, can facilitate the processes of reflection and socialization and help shift the training paradigm toward supporting professional identity formation. In May 2010, an online forum, where faculty could share personal reflective narratives with all residents and faculty via email, was created for the National University Health System's internal medicine residency program. By 2016, 40 letters had been written and nearly 200 residents and 30 faculty members had read these. This repository of faculty members' reflective narratives touches on a broad range of issues related to professionalism, including altruism, humanism, excellence, and accountability. In February 2017, the authors conducted semistructured focus group discussions with 20 residents to explore the impact of faculty members' reflective narratives on their professional identity development. Residents reported that narratives, if written by authors who were recognized as role models, triggered the processes of reflection and socialization; were more effective in provoking reflection if they resonated with residents' experiences; inspired them to follow how their role models reflected on and coped with challenges; and influenced the culture of the workplace, impacting the residents' daily experiences and leading to socialization and development of their professional identity. These early observations on the role of faculty members' reflective narratives highlight the importance of credible role models, the daily work experience, and the culture of the workplace and provide information educators could use to more effectively support trainees' professional identity formation as they design curricula. Among other things, future studies should explore the role and effectiveness of faculty members' reflective narratives in different educational contexts.

Orthography does not hinder non-native production learning in children

Children are known to be fast learners due to their neural plasticity. Learning a non-native language (L2) requires the mastering of new production patterns. In classroom settings, learners are not only exposed to the acoustic input, but also to the unfamiliar grapheme–phoneme correspondences of the L2 orthography. We tested how 9–10-year-old children, with Finnish as a native language (L1), respond to a two-day listen-and-repeat training paradigm, where they simultaneously hear acoustic stimuli and see orthographic cues. In the procedure, non-words containing the L2 vowel /ʉ/ were presented simultaneously with an orthographic cue showing <u>, guiding pronunciation towards the L1 vowel /u/ according to Finnish grapheme–phoneme correspondences. Earlier studies showed that Finnish adults rely on the orthographic cue over the acoustic one, leading them to produce /u/ instead of /ʉ/ when presented with the incongruent L1–L2 grapheme–phoneme correspondence (<u> – L1: /u/, L2: /ʉ/). Also, an earlier result from age-matched children receiving only acoustic input showed relatively fast pronunciation changes towards the target vowel. Our present results indicate clear and fast production learning of the non-native sound, and the misleading orthographic cue did not draw attention away from the target acoustic form. With orthographic cues, the participants learned to produce novel sounds faster than without them.

Bullying of vascular surgery trainees

ObjectiveBullying is defined as the perception of negative actions in which the target has difficulty in defending themself. Bullying can include verbal, physical, and psychological force used to influence the target’s behavior. We sought to understand the factors associated with bullying identified in vascular surgery trainees and the barriers to reporting. MethodsAn anonymous electronic survey consisting of demographic information and validated scales for bullying (negative acts questionnaire – revised [NAQ-R]), social support, and grit was sent to vascular surgery trainees in the United States. The respondents who had reported experiencing bullying were compared with those who had not been bullied. ResultsOf the 516 trainees invited, 132 (26%) completed the survey. Of these 132 trainees, 63 (48%) reported having been bullied or witnessing a fellow trainee being bullied in the previous 6 months, with 42 (32%) reporting having been bullied. Gender, marital status, paradigm of vascular training, grit level, and social support did not predict for the receipt of bullying, although those in the highest quartile of grit showed a trend toward lower NAQ-R scores (P = .06). As expected, the trainees that reported having experienced bullying had had higher NAQ-R scores (P < .0001). No trainee reported daily bullying; however, 52% reported bullying “now and then” or several times a week. The most common perpetrator was their direct superior surgeon, although 12 (29%) had reported bullying from co-residents and 6 (14%) had reported bullying from patients. Of the 42 trainees who had reported experiencing bullying, 15 (36%) did not address the bullying behavior. The most common barriers to reporting bullying identified were fear of loss of support from their supervisor (48%), loss of reputation (45%), and effect on career choices (43%). Of those who reported addressing the behavior, 56% reported that the behavior had continued. Of the 132 respondents, 70 (53%) reported no knowledge of institution-specific policies to address bullying in their program. The most common reasons identified for why bullying might occur in vascular training programs were “high stress environments” and “learned behavior” from others. ConclusionsOur results indicate that bullying occurs for a significant number of vascular trainees. However, we did not find any clearly identified factors predictive of who will experience bullying. Trainees with higher grit might experience less bullying or be more likely to have a lower perception of bullying behavior. Further research is needed to determine the effects of bullying on vascular trainees.

Abstract TP64: Determining The Role Of Single Support Center Of Pressure Distance For Characterizing Post-stroke Walking Impairment And Response To Rehabilitation Training

Introduction: Stroke is a major cause of balance and walking impairment and is on the rise. The most widely used walking impairment measure is the 10-meter walk test (10-mWT), which provides information about walking speed but does not inform about walking kinematics or neuromuscular control. Objective: Herein, we evaluate single support center of pressure distance (SS CoP Dist), a kinematic measure of dynamic postural control and walking stability, as a complementary measure of walking impairment. We hypothesize that SS CoP Dist will be closely associated with baseline walking speed, and will improve with Backward Locomotor Treadmill Training (BLTT). Methods: Thirty-six chronic stroke survivors with residual walking impairment, based on 10-mWT speed [ mild &gt;0.8 m/s (n =7); moderate 0.4-0.8m/s (n =18); and severe &lt;0.4 m/s (n = 11)] , underwent six 30-minute BLTT sessions over two consecutive weeks. During testing (10-mWT), participants were instructed to walk as fast as possible over the gait analysis mat to capture SS CoP Dist and walking speed. Results: At baseline, there was a weak to moderate positive relationship between walking speed and SS CoP Dist (R 2 paretic = 0.22, p = 0.0036; R 2 Nonparetic = 0.44, p &lt; 0.0001). Following BLTT, SS COP Dist increased (more stable) in the mild and moderate groups [mild paretic ( p = 0.0039)/mild Nonparetic ( p = 0.0034) , moderate paretic ( p = 0.0360)/ moderate Nonparetic ( p = 0.0087)], with improved interlimb symmetry in the mild group. In contrast, no significant improvement in SS CoP Dist was seen in participants with severe walking impairment ( p = 0.3830). Training-related changes in walking speed were strongly correlated with change in SS CoP Dist (R 2 Nonparetic = 0.54, p = 0.0007). Conclusion: Our preliminary findings suggest that SS CoP Dist compliments walking speed for characterizing walking severity and response to training in chronic stroke survivors. In addition, BLTT significantly improved SS CoP Dist in mild-moderately impaired stroke survivors but not in survivors with severe walking impairment. Future well-powered, prospective studies with BLTT and other training paradigms are needed to validate these findings.

Talker adjustment to perceived communication errors

During conversation, talkers may adapt their speech in a variety of ways. One form of adaptation is clear speech, in which a talker hyperarticulates when faced with specific communication challenges. In this study, we investigated how phonetic adaptation is affected by the nature of apparent miscommunication. To do so, we utilized a common feature of American English dialects, in which intervocalic /t/ is realized as a voiced flap rather than an unvoiced, fully articulated stop before unstressed syllables, causing words like petal and pedal to sound similar. Flapped /t/ may become more distinct compared to /d/ during clear speech. Using a faux-computer training paradigm, we provided artificial feedback on subjects’ speech. When subjects said a word (e.g., petal) the computer would either interpret the word correctly (i.e., it guesses petal) or incorrectly (it guesses pedal, kettle or ???). We measured talkers’ produced word length, initial-syllable vowel length, and medial consonant stop closure or flap consonant duration in both their first and second utterances of each trial. We found that participants produced longer words, vowels, and stop closure durations in response to feedback that contained an error compared to correct feedback. Participants also changed their flapped productions to stops most often and lengthened their stop closures to a greater degree following voicing errors compared to the other error conditions. Our findings indicate that interlocutors’ productions may change along different acoustic dimensions depending on the kind of miscommunication they experience. Broadly, our findings indicate a need to consider how phonetic adaptation in the form of clear speech is affected by the nature of miscommunication during conversational interaction.

Federated Learning: Enhancing Data Privacy and Security in Machine Learning through Decentralized Training Paradigms

Federated learning represents a transformative paradigm in the realm of machine learning by enabling models to be trained across multiple decentralized devices or servers holding local data samples without exchanging them. This approach significantly enhances data privacy and security by ensuring that sensitive information remains localized while still contributing to global model improvements. This paper delves into the technical intricacies of federated learning, examining its architecture, methodologies, and algorithms. Furthermore, it explores various applications across different industries, evaluates the challenges in implementation, and discusses potential solutions to overcome these obstacles. The impact of federated learning on data privacy and security is thoroughly analyzed, providing insights into its future scope and areas for further research.

Integrating the HFACS Framework and Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping for In-Flight Startle Causality Analysis.

This paper discusses the challenge of modeling in-flight startle causality as a precursor to enabling the development of suitable mitigating flight training paradigms. The article presents an overview of aviation human factors and their depiction in fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs), based on the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) framework. The approach exemplifies system modeling with agents (causal factors), which showcase the problem space’s characteristics as fuzzy cognitive map elements (concepts). The FCM prototype enables four essential functions: explanatory, predictive, reflective, and strategic. This utility of fuzzy cognitive maps is due to their flexibility, objective representation, and effectiveness at capturing a broad understanding of a highly dynamic construct. Such dynamism is true of in-flight startle causality. On the other hand, FCMs can help to highlight potential distortions and limitations of use case representation to enhance future flight training paradigms.

Gamified Web-Delivered Attentional Bias Modification Training for Adults With Chronic Pain: Protocol for a Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.

BackgroundTo date, research has found variable success in using attentional bias modification training (ABMT) procedures in pain samples. Several factors could contribute to these mixed findings, including boredom and low motivation. Indeed, training paradigms are repetitive, which can lead to disengagement and high dropout rates. A potential approach to overcoming some of these barriers is to attempt to increase motivation and engagement through gamification (ie, the use of game elements) of this procedure. To date, research has yet to explore the gamified format of ABMT for chronic pain and its potential for the transfer of benefits.ObjectiveThe aim of this study is to investigate the effects of a gamified web-delivered ABMT intervention in a sample of adults with chronic pain via a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.MethodsA total of 120 adults with chronic musculoskeletal pain, recruited from clinical (hospital outpatient waiting list) and nonclinical (wider community) settings, will be included in this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 3-arm trial. Participants will be randomly assigned to complete 6 web-based sessions of dot-probe nongamified sham control ABMT, nongamified standard ABMT, or gamified ABMT across a period of 3 weeks. Active ABMT conditions will aim to train attention away from pain-relevant words. Participant outcomes will be assessed at pretraining, during training, immediately after training, and at the 1-month follow-up. Primary outcomes include pain intensity, pain interference, and behavioral and self-reported engagement. Secondary outcomes include attentional bias for pain, anxiety, depression, interpretation bias for pain, and perceived improvement.ResultsThe ethical aspects of this research project have been approved by the human research ethics committees of the Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital (HREC/2020/QRBW/61743) and Queensland University of Technology (2000000395). Study recruitment commenced in August 2021 and is ongoing. Data collection and analysis are expected to be concluded by October 2022 and January 2023, respectively.ConclusionsThis trial will be the first to evaluate the effects of gamification techniques in a pain ABMT intervention. The findings will provide important information on the potential therapeutic benefits of gamified pain ABMT programs, shed light on the motivational influences of certain game elements in the context of pain, and advance our understanding of chronic pain.Trial RegistrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12620000803998; https://anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12620000803998.aspxInternational Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)PRR1-10.2196/32359

Pilot application of Lecture-Panel-Discussion Model (LPDM) in global collaborative neurosurgical education: a novel training paradigm innovated by the Swedish African Neurosurgery Collaboration.

BackgroundDisruptions in global surgery educational routines by the COVID-19 pandemic have elicited demands for alternative formats for rendering qualitative neurosurgical education. This study presents application of a novel model of online neurosurgical course, the Lecture-Panel-Discussion Model (LPDM).MethodsThis is a cross-sectional survey of participants who attended the Swedish African Neurosurgery Collaboration (SANC)-100A course. Participants evaluated the course through an online self-administered questionnaire using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from very poor—1, poor—2, average (fair)—3, good—4, to excellent—5. SANC-100A comprises a tripod of Lectures, Panel review, and interactive case Discussion. This model (LPDM) was innovated by SANC and applied at the Enugu International Neurosurgery course in February 2021.ResultsThere were 71 attendees, 19 were course faculty, while 52 were participants. Thirty-five attended from Nigeria, 11 from Sweden, 3 from Malawi, 2 from Senegal, and 1 from the UK. Among 44 participants who completed the questionnaire, there were 9 fellows and 35 residents. The overall median course Likert rating was 4.65 ± 0.1. The median overall rating for course events was similar between day 1 (Likert score = 4.45) and day 2 (Likert score = 4.55), U = 55, Z score = 1.10, P = 0.27. The median rating for lectures was 4.50 ± 0.2 and varied from 4.40 on day 1 to 4.55 on day 2. The median rating for panel review was 4.60 ± 0.1 and varied from 4.55 on day 1 to 4.65 on day 2. Interactive case discussions were rated 4.80 on both course days. There was a significant variability in the rating profiles of the course tripod: U = 24.5, P = 0.03. Fifty-one (98%) participants believe LPDM was COVID-19-compliant, while 90% believe the course was beneficial to training and practice.ConclusionInitial application of LPDM is rewarded with both high acceptance and high rating among participants.

Improving Education for Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Chinese Technical Universities: A Quest for Building a Sustainable Framework

The global economic trends and the winds of technological change have elevated the status of integration between industry and education for innovation and entrepreneurship to that of being a national strategic priority of China. However, for a long time prior to that, the many differences between the industrial and educational systems have caused a rift between education for innovation and entrepreneurship and professional education, a profound disconnection between professional education and the local industries, and the subsequent disinterest of entrepreneurial mentors. In this paper, we analyze the status of education for innovation and entrepreneurship in Chinese technical universities. It is pointed out that technical universities should deepen the integration between the industry and education for innovation and entrepreneurship in order to mitigate the imbalance between the supply side of the higher education talent training and the demand side of industrial development. It is also argued that technical universities should change their talent training paradigm, which includes a makeover of the organizational structure and of the curricular system, as well as make amends in the innovation ecosystem with respect to the organization of incubation platforms and of teacher–student teams, in order to promote national and regional economic development, as well as social progress. A method to evaluate the performance of the education for innovation and entrepreneurship in Chinese technical universities, based on specific performance indicators including patents filled, publications, awards in competitions, and acquired funding and on certain non-specific ones including organizational arrangements and satisfaction rates, is presented and then applied to the specific case of the Changzhou Institute of Technology.

A new paradigm for investigating temporal order memory shows higher order associations are present in recent but not in remote retrieval.

Memory of a sequence of distinct events requires encoding the temporal order as well as the intervals that separates these events. In this study, using order-place association task where the animal learns to associate the location of the food pellet to the order of entry into the event arena, we probe the nature of temporal order memory in mice. In our task, individual trials become distinct events, as the animal is trained to form a unique association between entry order and a correct location. The inter-trial intervals (> 30min) are chosen deliberately to minimize the inputs from working memory. We develop this paradigm initially using four order-place associates and later extend it to five paired associates. Our results show that animals not only acquire these explicit (entry order to place) associations but also higher order associations that can only be inferred implicitly (temporal relation between the events) from the temporal order of these events. As an indicator of such higher order learning during the probe trial, the mice exhibit predominantly prospective errors that decline proportionally with temporal distance. On the other hand, prior to acquiring the sequence, the retrospective errors are dominant. In addition, we also tested the nature of such acquisitions when temporal order CS is presented along with flavored pellet as a compound stimulus comprising of order and flavor both simultaneously being paired with location. Results from these experiments indicate that the animal learns both order-place and flavor-place associations. Comparing with pure order-place training, we find that the additional flavor stimulus in a compound training paradigm did not interfere with the ability of the animals to acquire the order-place associations. When tested remotely, pure order-place associations could be retrieved only after a reminder training. Further higher order associations representing the temporal relationship between the events is markedly absent in the remote time.