Parasocial Research Articles

Typology and impact of follower responses to social media influencer “promotional crisis”

AbstractThis study introduces a typology of follower responses to seemingly deceptive promotional content by a social media influencer (SMI) and the effects of those responses on observers. Through a large‐scale, mixed‐methods analysis of an influencer's “promotional crisis” in early 2023, popularly known as “Mascaragate” on TikTok, we identified follower engagement types that potentially harm both SMI and the promoted brand. The crisis sparked an unusually high level of network activity, providing valuable insights into the ripple effects of follower reactions. Drawing on parasocial relationship theory and social capital theory, we proposed that interactions between influencers and their followers, as well as among followers, evolve systematically through linguistic and social cues. These interactions can shift the original meaning of the influencer's message, leading to unintended consequences for both SMI and the brand. Through netnography and k‐means cluster analysis, we identified three distinct clusters of followers with unique attitudes toward the post and SMI. One group (i.e., “Type 1”) was particularly adept at reshaping the meaning of the SMI post through rational engagement with other followers. A subsequent experiment assessed the impact of each group's comments on the observers within a broader community network, focusing on credibility, skepticism, and the impact of social media dependency. The findings offer practical tools for brands and SMIs to analyze follower comment patterns and suggest strategies for addressing crises stemming from SMI‐linked promotional content, ultimately helping to preserve brand reputation and trust.

Digital Media to Support Healing from Trauma: A Conceptual Framework Based on Mindfulness.

Digital media which involve narrative storytelling are increasingly used in nursing and health research, including clinical applications such as cinematherapy. A pilot study was conducted on how digital media self-accessed by marginalized individuals may be beneficial toward mindfulness and healing from trauma. Qualitative interviews were conducted with individuals (n = 8) who self-reported marginalizations via: race; gender; rural geography; socioeconomic status; indigenous or colonial experience; survivor of abuse; experiences of homelessness; or disability. Results indicated that trauma-narratives often organically emerge through discussions on digital media, with notable intersections with mindfulness-based practices and interventions. First, digital media can create a mindfulness of trauma as valid to discuss and disseminate. Mindfulness of authentic resolution also emerged as critical, as trauma may be employed in media narratives for attention or sympathy with no intent to support healing. Participant responses illustrate value in being mindful of individuals with severe trauma, who may be less likely to benefit from digital media. Digital media can foster sense-of-belonging and community-building amidst isolation; additionally, parasocial relationships may help foster supportive identities and ideologies on vulnerability. Findings are outlined in a preliminary conceptual framework, toward supporting future digital media with intent to create mindfulness or heal trauma.

Unveiling the Impact of Influencer Attributes on Purchase Intention of Gen Z: The Moderating Role of Parasocial Interaction

This study investigates the impact of social media influencer attributes, namely source credibility, social presence and influencer inspiration on the purchase intention of Gen Z consumers, considering the moderating effect of parasocial interaction. The conceptual model was created by combining the social learning theory, the social presence theory and the parasocial theory to examine and comprehend the key characteristics of social media influencers and the role they play in attracting Gen Z consumers. The study adopted a quantitative approach. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 303 Generation Z consumers in India. The hypothesized model was tested using SMART PLS-4 through the use of structural equation modelling analysis. Source credibility and influencer inspiration were found to influence the Gen Z cohort’s purchase intention favourably. However, it was found that social presence did not significantly influence Gen Z consumers’ purchase intention. The results of the moderation analysis indicate that parasocial interaction positively moderated the relationship between source credibility and purchase intention and did not have a significant moderating effect on the relationship between influencers’ social presence, inspiration and purchase intention of Gen Z consumers. Implications for theory and practice are also discussed, thus adding to the emergent literature on influencer marketing.

The Impact of Parasocial Relationships and Self-Congruity on Online Purchasing Decisions: The Mediating Role of Fear of Missing Out

The widespread adoption of digital technology has significantly altered consumer purchasing habits in the online arena. Online purchasing decisions have become critical to consumer behavior, involving various complex psychological, social, economic, and technological considerations. This study examines how three key factors, parasocial relationships (PR), self-congruity (SC), and fear of missing out (FoMO), influence online purchasing decisions (OPD). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to determine the influence of PR and SC on OPD and to discover any essential mediating factors in this association. Data was gathered empirically from 286 consumers who completed the entire online survey form. The results showed no statistically significant direct influence of PR or SC on OPD. However, this study found that FoMO is essential in mediating the interaction of PR, SC, and OPD. It implies that the association between PR and OPD is due to FoMO inclinations. As such, this work verifies FoMO's role as a mediator in the relationship between SC and OPD. The findings imply that a match between a person's self-congruity and a specific brand or product influences their online purchasing decisions through FoMO.

Relationships among para-social interaction, perceived benefits, community commitment, and customer citizenship behavior: Evidence from a social live-streaming platform

Encouraging online consumers to participate in the value enhancement process of products and stimulating users to engage in spontaneous and voluntary behaviors, the so-called Customer Citizenship Behaviors (CCBs), can significantly contribute to enhancing the competitiveness of online communities. Nowadays, there has been no systematic discussion on enhancing product value through value co-creation. Based on the Social Exchange Theory (SET), and take the current new type of online community, the social live-streaming community, as the research object, this study investigates how Para-social Interaction (PSI) between users and streamers affects users' perceived benefits, whether perceived benefits are related to users' community commitment and the relationship between community commitment and CCB from the perspective of value co-creation. Three hundred and forty-seven valid samples from China were obtained using TikTok and subsequently analyzed via Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The analysis results show that PSI positively influences users' perceived benefits, and among the perceived benefits, hedonic and self-esteem benefits can positively influence users' community commitment. When users' community commitment to live-streamers exists, it can effectively incentivize users to develop CCB. Theoretically, research findings enrich the study of online community value co-creation, para-social interaction, and citizenship behavior and provide recommendations for operating social live-streaming platforms.

The mediating role of intentional self-regulation in the constructive and pathological compensation processes of problematic social networking use

Perceived social isolation is a key predictor of college students’ problematic social networking site use (PSNSU). According to the Fear-Driven/Compensation-Seeking Hypothesis, reducing the fear of social isolation and compensating for social deficits serve as negative reinforcement motivations for SNS use, which may potentially result in PSNSU. This study investigated the association between perceived social isolation and PSNSU through the mediating roles of intentional self-regulation and parasocial relationships from a compensatory perspective. Additionally, gender differences in the mediating model were examined. Findings from an online survey of 893 college students in China revealed a positive relationship between perceived social isolation and PSNSU. The serial mediation model showed that intentional self-regulation and parasocial relationships both had positive individual mediating effects, as well as a negative serial mediating effect. Moreover, these mediating effects were only significant among women. The findings suggest that in the association between perceived social isolation and PSNSU, the mediating role of intentional self-regulation forms a constructive compensatory process, while its serial mediating role through parasocial relationships forms a pathological compensatory process. Interventions for PSNSU should take the mediating role of intentional self-regulation in constructive compensation process and the gender difference into consideration.

Parasocial interactions and parasocial relationships on Instagram: An in-depth analysis of fashion and beauty influencers

Influencer marketing on social media platforms has garnered considerable attention in recent years. This study focuses on beauty and fashion influencers on Instagram and examines how changes in the category of influencer posts, value of influencer posts, and levels of parasocial interaction (PSI) correlate with parasocial relationships (PSRs). A regression analysis of data from 215 influencers and 7285 posts in the Japanese market revealed that enhancing PSIs between influencers and followers is associated with stronger PSRs with followers. An increase in the value of an influencer’s posts was also correlated with stronger PSRs. Furthermore, the interaction between an increase in the value of an influencer’s posts and an increase in PSIs was significantly associated with stronger PSRs. Moreover, when PSIs intensify, an increase in posts that directly promote products, clothing coordination, and influencers’ style introductions is positively and significantly correlated with the strength of PSRs between influencers and followers. Influencers can use these insights to develop strategies for effectively building stronger PSRs.

Qualitative and quantitative investigations of Office fans’ connections with fictional and celebrity couples: Identification, parasocial relationships, and beyond.

Qualitative and quantitative investigations of Office fans’ connections with fictional and celebrity couples: Identification, parasocial relationships, and beyond.

Antecedents & After-Effects of Content Creator-Based Product Placement: Empirical Insights from Bangladesh

Purpose: The emergence of content creators in social media is a comparatively new phenomenon of interest which has rightfully attracted the digital marketers. As they have discovered a new way to connect with the audience it has inevitably led to the advent of content creator-based product placement. The study is designed to propose and test a creator product placement model uncovering the factors determining audiences’ attitude and subsequent behavioral responses. Design/Methodology: The study employed a single-cross sectional design administering a structured questionnaire-based survey on a sample of 385 respondents. A conceptual model was developed showing the hypothesized relationships among specified variables which was validated using Structural Equation Modeling. Findings: Content preference, relatability, quality, attitude toward creator, parasocial relationship, fit between content and brand and fit between creator and brand are the significant determinants of the attitude toward creator product placement. It in turn influences attitude toward brand and subsequent purchasing intention. Practical Implication: The proposed framework will aid social media marketers to formulate effective creator marketing strategies to elicit desired behavioral response from the audience. It also enriches the existing body of literature of creator marketing. Originality/Value: The study endeavors to come up with a comprehensive model to understand the behavior of the target audience toward creator product placement which is relatively unexplored and unidentified.

From Click to Trip: A Socio‐Technical Perspective on Tourism Live Streaming

ABSTRACTTourism live streaming can significantly enhance users' desire to travel. Although previous studies have identified many technical and social enablers influencing users' impulsive travel intention, limited research has examined it from a socio‐technical perspective. This paper aims to develop and validate a theoretical model that explains how visibility, personalization, and metavoicing influence impulsive travel intention through parasocial relationship in tourism live streaming. Empirical results (N = 551) reveal that visibility, personalization, and metavoicing exert both direct positive impacts on impulsive travel intention and indirect effects through the mediation of parasocial relationship. This paper also identifies gender as a moderating role in the proposed model. This paper enriches the literature by not only shedding light on the underlying process through which users develop impulsive travel intention, considering both technical features and social interaction but also stands as one of the earliest to investigate the gender's moderating role in this process.

Bothered More by Acquaintances’ Appearance than Celebrities’ on Social Networks: An Investigation of Comparison Targets’ Effect under Social Comparison Theory with a Chinese Student Sample

In times of the rise of the “A4 waist” trend on social networks (SNs), concerns have been raised over appearance-related content’s adverse effects on body image and well-being in parasocial relationships. We conducted a survey on Chinese college students ( N = 333) to examine the effects of comparison targets (same-gender acquaintances, celebrities, and online strangers) based on social comparison theory. The results indicate that, in line with construal-level theory, students paid more attention to the appearance-related content of same-gender acquaintances than that of the other two target groups. Surprisingly, small gaps in physical attraction between the students and acquaintances generated more appearance concern than the huge gaps between the students and celebrities, which could be explained by the “narcissism of small differences” theory. We developed existing comparison target studies by including the impact of online strangers to adapt to the current SN environment. Although the students paid the least attention to strangers’ SN appearance-related content, exposure to such content had a positive correlation with appearance concern. Regarding gender differences, females devoted more to SN appearance-related content than males across all three target groups, but the concern generated from viewing such content differed only when the targets were celebrities (females > males). The present study expands social comparison theory by introducing a two-dimensional (similarity and interaction forms) concept of “social distance.” Our findings suggest that socially close targets received more attention and comparisons and generated more concern about appearance.

Fans and Friendships: The Power of Live Concerts among Chinese Young Adults

This qualitative study explores the concert-going experiences of Chinese young adults, focusing on the role of parasocial relationships and interactive ritual chains in shaping their emotional engagement and social interactions. Through in-depth interviews with nine participants, the research reveals how social media fosters parasocial relationships, enhancing fans’ emotional connections with pop stars and motivating concert attendance. The study also examines the ritual of exchanging souvenirs, which strengthens communal bonds and distinguishes true fans through their non-commercial exchanges. The findings contribute to a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted appeal of live pop music concerts.

Beyond likes: the persuasive potential of romantic parasocial relationships with influencers

While existing studies emphasize the crucial role of amicable parasocial relationships in influencing the audience, research on the persuasive potential of romantic parasocial relationships with influencers remains limited. These relationships, characterized by a blend of physical and emotional love, are believed to be particularly intense. Therefore, we aim to investigate the persuasive impact of romantic potential with influencers, which may lead to the development of romantic parasocial relationships. Specifically, we analyze the influence of romantic potential (no romantic potential vs. romantic potential) and its interaction with follower status (follower vs. non-follower) on romantic parasocial relationships, evaluative persuasion knowledge, and subsequently purchase intention. Conducted among German social media users (N = 220), our experiment revealed no significant main effects of romantic potential on evaluative persuasion knowledge and purchase intentions. However, we found a significant indirect effect of romantic potential on the dependent variables mediated by emotional love but not physical love. Additionally, a significant interaction effect revealed that while the formation of the physical dimension in romantic parasocial relationships occurs relatively quickly, emotional affection requires a longer period to develop. This study significantly contributes to our understanding of persuasive dynamics in influencer marketing and opens avenues for further research.

Parasocial Interactions in Otome Games: Emotional Engagement and Parasocial Intimacy Among Chinese Female Players

This study conducts qualitative research on female players of otome games, exploring the mechanisms of romantic relationship formation within these games and their impact on perceptions of real-life intimate relationships. The findings reveal that the parasocial romantic relationships formed in otome games are not entirely detached from reality; instead, they are embedded in daily life through game interaction mechanisms and the players’ internalized imagination, thereby influencing the reconstruction of real-life intimate relationships. Female players show a high degree of acceptance and immersion in these romantic relationships, focusing on the emotional support provided by male characters. These relationships play a positive role in fulfilling emotional needs, regulating negative emotions, constructing self-identity, and redefining perceptions of intimacy. The intangibility of physical contact remains the only significant shortcoming, as perceived by a minority of players, pointing to a primary direction for the future development of otome games.

I Bond, I Engage, I Visit: Investigating the Effects of Vloggers Tourist Engagement and Its Outcome on Tourist Attitudes

The present study investigates the effectiveness of tourism vlogs (video blogs), the parasocial bonding between the vloggers and the tourist/prospect and the wishful identification of the tourist/prospect on the different components of engagement namely, affective, cognitive and behavioral. The study also inspects the subsequent effect of the components of engagement on visit intentions and electronic word of mouth. We adopted a mixed method approach involving two focus group discussions followed by a sample survey of 541 respondents from India to construct and validate the study hypotheses using structural equation modeling. The findings indicate a differential effect of parasocial bonding and wishful identification on the components of consumer engagement. Likewise, engagement components are observed to have differential effects on visit intentions and electronic word of mouth. This study extends the application of social learning theory to tourism by offering a novel perspective on how interactions with travel vlogs collectively shape customer decisions and travel intentions. Tourism marketers can capitalize on the impact of parasocial interactions and wishful identification with travel vloggers to enhance engagement and boost the dissemination of electronic word-of-mouth.

Decoding Destination Desires: The Influence of Social Media on Young Travelers' Choices Through Parasocial Interaction

This study aims to explore the influence of source credibility (attractiveness, expertise, trustworthiness, and similarity) and fairness (distributive information, procedural, and interpersonal) on developing parasocial relationships between SMIs and their followers, and how these relationships lead to the marketing outcome of destination visit intentions between generation Y and Z. This study utilized a quantitative research method, specifically the self-administered questionnaire technique. The collected data was analysed using Smart PLS. The findings indicate that attractiveness (a sub-dimension of source credibility), distributive fairness, procedural fairness, and informational fairness have a significant influence on developing parasocial relationships between SMIs and generation Y and Z. Additionally, these parasocial relationships mediate the relationship between these factors and destination visit intentions. Furthermore, expertise, trustworthiness, similarity, and informational fairness do not influence parasocial relationships and intentions, which is not in line with previous literature. This research makes significant theoretical and practical contributions to the tourism marketing literature by providing evidence in regard to understanding destination visit intentions in the context of destination marketing.

Corporate Communication Through Podcasts: The Impact of Voice-Fit and Attention During Listening on Parasocial Interaction with the Host and Persuasive Effects

ABSTRACT Companies increasingly integrate their own podcasts into their communication strategies and are thus using a medium in which the host’s voice is the primary contact point for recipients. Since podcasts are generally listened to either with full concentration or in parallel with other activities, the question arises as to how voice characteristics exert an influence in different attention conditions. A 2 × 2-between-subjects-laboratory-experiment (N = 129) shows that attention, but not voice-fit with the company, increases parasocial interaction (PSI) with the host. However, deeper message processing due to higher PSI leads to negative persuasive effects. Scientific and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

The Effect of Social Media Influencer Warranting Cues on Intentions to Use Non-Hormonal Contraception

ABSTRACT Young women increasingly get sexual health information from social media influencers, who use persuasive communication and can alter attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. Contraception is a commonly discussed health topic among influencers on social media. Previous research suggests that influencers negatively frame and encourage the discontinuation of hormonal contraception. At the same time, influencers also encourage the uptake of less effective non-hormonal options, such as fertility awareness-based methods. Though descriptive content analysis work details these patterns in influencer contraceptive messaging, there is no experimental research that explains message effects. The purpose of this study was to experimentally test the effect of influencer contraceptive-related messaging on behavioral health intentions. This study introduces warranting theory as a potentially valuable model for explaining online health communication message effects. Specifically, this study tested the effect of influencer messages containing sponsorship and medical disclaimers on intentions to use non-hormonal contraception. U.S. females (n = 296) ranging in age from 18–29 years old participated in a survey. Findings suggest that the interaction led to decreased intentions to use non-hormonal contraception. However, findings did not support a relationship between influencer messaging and impressions, which highlights potential boundary conditions for warranting theory and high-risk health behaviors. Additionally, there was a positive relationship between perceived trustworthiness and expertise of the influencer and intention to use non-hormonal contraception. Future research should test influencer messaging using real social media content and consider the effect of parasocial relationships. Practical implications highlight the need for comprehensive contraceptive counseling.

Impact of Influencer Attractiveness, Credibility on Parasocial Interaction, Purchase Intentions: Moderating Congruence

Impact of Influencer Attractiveness, Credibility on Parasocial Interaction, Purchase Intentions: Moderating Congruence

The influence of entertainment and brand characters on children's object preferences and monetary judgments

Companies often use images of popular characters from children's media on their products. The current study investigated how different types of popular characters (i.e., entertainment or brand) influence children's trust, preference for, and monetary judgments of objects. Additionally, we explored whether children's own parasocial relationships with such characters influence their preferences and judgments. Participants included 66 four- and five-year-olds (Mage = 5.06; SD = 0.48; 34 boys; 32 girls). First, children completed a selective trust task measuring their preference for information from a familiar or unfamiliar character. Then children asked which object (i.e., damaged with a familiar character image or undamaged without a familiar character image) they would want and which people would pay more money for. Results indicated regardless of character type (i.e., entertainment or brand), children did not trust (i.e., seek out new information or endorse specific testimony) the familiar marketing character more than an unfamiliar character. Children across all character conditions did not display a preference for either object, however they were more likely to rate the undamaged object as more valuable than the damaged object featuring the familiar character. Parasocial relationships for all types of characters were high and did not relate to children's preferences or judgments. These findings expand on previous research suggesting that although the presence of familiar media characters can influence children's preferences for individual objects, children can also weigh more relevant features of an object, such as potential flaws in the design, when making other decisions (e.g., value).