Papahānaumokuākea Research Articles

Horizontal distribution of benthic and demersal fish assemblages on three seamounts in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

Deep-sea fishes on seamounts have recently been shown to have strong changes in assemblage patterns with depth. However, horizontal variability patterns within a single seamount and among seamounts remain drastically understudied. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) is part of an extensive seamount chain that is relatively unimpacted by human activity as well as highly variable in physiographic and oceanographic characteristics. Three PMNM seamounts, Necker Island, French Frigate Shoals (FFS), and Pioneer Bank, were explored using Autonomous Underwater Vehicle surveys to document the deep-sea fish assemblages and their horizontal patterns of distribution at three different depths. Quantitative comparisons were made among the sides of the seamount and among the three seamounts while controlling for depth. The Gadiformes were the most abundant order with the highest number of individuals at 300 and 450 m on Pioneer and FFS. At 600 m the Myctophiformes showed the highest number of individuals overall and were the most abundant on FFS. Significant differences in abundance by seamount, side, and their interaction were observed at 300 and 600 m. Significant differences in some diversity metrics occurred in one, both, or the interaction of the factors of seamount and side at each depth. At all depths, the structure of the fish assemblage showed significant variation among seamounts and sides, which was explained mostly by the interaction term. After accounting for the variability explained by the confounding factor of time of day, the most common environmental factors related to assemblage structure for at least two depths were the east-west component of currents (u), latitude, chlorophyll a (chl a), and particulate organic carbon (POC). At 300 m, oxygen and salinity were also important, at 450 m mean direction of the substrate was an additional factor that was correlated with assemblage structure. At 600 m the factor that explained the most variation in community structure was percent rugosity. The results obtained in this study show significant horizontal variability in seamount fish assemblages within a given depth range; this variability should be taken into consideration in the management and conservation of the Monument and other seamounts.

The occurrence of humpback whales across the Hawaiian archipelago revealed by fixed and mobile acoustic monitoring

The occurrence of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) across the 2600 km of Hawaiian archipelago, which include the remote atolls, banks, and seamounts of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), remains poorly understood. Previous surveys for humpback whales beyond the main Hawaiian Islands have been scarce due to limited access and the challenging winter conditions typically found in PMNM when whales are present. To overcome these limitations, a combination of moored acoustic recorders and a Wave Glider autonomous surface vehicle were used to acoustically monitor eight locations and survey approximately 1500 km of the Hawaiian archipelago for the occurrence of humpback whale song during the 2019-2020 breeding season. Relative song prevalence was established using a machine learning tool and by quantifying the level of song chorusing. A generalized additive model framework was applied to understand the associations between habitat variables and humpback whale song occurrence, and sound propagation modeling was performed to examine whether acoustic propagation influenced observed patterns. Whale song was recorded at all monitored and surveyed locations across the archipelago, albeit in varying amounts. Among the locations monitored with moored recorders, the highest and most sustained seasonal chorusing levels were measured off Maui followed by French Frigate Shoals (Kānemilohai), Hawaii Island, Middle Bank, Oahu, Kauai, Gardner Pinnacles (Pūhāhonu) and Pearl and Hermes Reef (Holoikauaua), respectively. The Wave Glider mission to PMNM revealed that song prevalence was highest at Middle Bank and gradually decreased further to the northwest, reaching a minimum at Gardner Pinnacles (Pūhāhonu). However, song occurrence increased again at Raita Bank, remaining high between Raita Bank and the Northampton Seamounts. The results reveal that nearly the entire Hawaiian archipelago is exploited by humpback whales during the winter and early spring months. Moreover, song occurrence patterns suggest that there may be more structure in the distribution of whales in PMNM than previously known and raises questions about whether multiple subpopulations occur across the archipelago.

Does polycentricity fit? Linking social fit with polycentric governance in a large-scale marine protected area

Scholars have theorized that polycentricity may produce benefits that promote effective, sustainable governance of complex social-ecological systems. Yet, little empirical research exists exploring whether and how these benefits emerge and what additional outcomes polycentric governance systems produce. This paper presents an empirical examination of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), one of the longest-standing and largest marine protected areas in the world. Monument governance is structured as a polycentric system, including semi-autonomous decision-making groups and governance actors that interact across jurisdiction, geography, and decision-making levels. Through analysis of qualitative empirical data, we explore whether and how PMNM functions as theory predicts, with a particular focus on social fit and how it has evolved over time. Findings indicate that PMNM largely exhibits social fit for governance actors, and they add empirical support and additional nuance to theoretical understandings of functional polycentricity. Specifically, the case suggests additional contextual features that might promote social fit, including sufficient time and resources, clear communication and shared understanding, and socially astute and strategically savvy governance actors holding key governance positions. The article demonstrates that social fit can increase or decrease over time, and that different actors may perceive its presence and extent differently. These findings suggest avenues for additional research into how the enabling conditions of polycentric governance systems and the contextual features that enliven those systems in practice may interact and affect functionality and other outcomes.

Diversity of Kallymeniaceae (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) associated with Hawaiian mesophotic reefs

ABSTRACT Small red algal morphologically variable blades have been extensively collected from Hawaiian reefs, but for many specimens their taxonomy remains poorly understood. In surveys of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) and Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI), we discovered two taxa of undescribed small (< 5 cm) red blades that matched the genera Psaromenia and Meredithia, based on morphology and molecular analyses. Neither genus has been previously recorded in the Hawaiian Islands, and neither group of specimens matched currently described species in these two genera. Accordingly, these specimens are described here as new species within the family Kallymeniaceae. Psaromenia laulamaula sp. nov., exclusively found at mesophotic depths (83–94 m) in PMNM, is easily distinguished from other members of the genus by its comparatively large, procarpic carpogonial branch system and solitary obovate pink-to-magenta blades. Conversely, Meredithia hawaiiensis sp. nov., occurring in both shallow (0–17 m) and mesophotic depths (55 m), has high morphological plasticity, with characters that overlap with other Meredithia species, and can only be distinguished based on DNA sequences. This study provides additional evidence of the extent of diversity in the Kallymeniaceae that is poorly characterized from mesophotic depths and provides further evidence that members of the macroalgal flora contain overlooked biodiversity.

Economic impacts of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument expansion on the Hawaii longline fishery

This study examines the economic impacts of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) expansion on the Hawaii longline fishery, using difference-in-differences (DID) models with fixed effects. It evaluates the impacts of the PMNM expansion on catch per unit effort (CPUE) and fishing revenue for the group of vessels that had a high portion of their fishing effort inside the Monument Expanded Area (MEA) prior to the expansion in August 2016. The results show that the PMNM expansion caused the CPUE of this group of vessels to decrease by 7%. Revenue per trip decreased by 9%, $3.5 million, during the first 16 months of post-expansion period. One likely reason for the negative impacts is that longline fishers who used to fish inside the MEA have been displaced from their traditional fishing grounds are still in the process of becoming more efficient in finding areas with comparable productivity.

Effects of SCUBA bubbles on counts of roving piscivores in a large remote marine protected area.

This study examined the effects of SCUBA bubbles on fish counts in underwater visual surveys conducted in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM). Specifically, paired fish surveys were conducted at each survey site, utilizing two different gear types: open-circuit SCUBA (OC) and closed-circuit rebreather (CCR). Bubble exhaust released from the OC equipment is a potential source of bias for in-situ fish observations, as the associated audio and visual disturbances could either attract or repel fishes depending on whether their behavior is more driven by curiosity or caution. The study area, is a large (~1.5 million km2) and extremely remote marine protected area in which the response of coral reef fishes to divers represent natural behavior of naive fishes with little or no previous contact with humans. Historically, surveys conducted on OC in this area have shown an abundance of large roving piscivores and this study set out to determine the extant, if any, the audible and visual disturbances of OC bubbles have. The species typically seen in these prior surveys were Caranx ignobilis, Caranx melampygus, Aprion virescens, and a couple of species of sharks. We found differences in counts for some roving piscivores, including significantly more jacks observed on OC than CCR (Caranx ignobilis 57% more, and Caranx melampygus 113% more). Instance of first encounter, i.e. the time when a fish was first observed during a survey, also varied for some species. Higher numbers of Aprion virescens (p = 0.04), and C. melampygus (p = <0.001) were observed in the first 5-minutes of counts by divers on OC (i.e. when they were using breathing apparatus that produced noises that could be heard over long distances). Although not the focus of the study, we also assessed differences between OC and CCR counts for other groups of fishes. Estimated abundance of benthic damselfish was higher on OC than CCR, and counts of butterflyfish were lower on OC; but there were no significant differences for the other groups considered. This is an important control study that documents the natural responses of coral reef fishes to SCUBA bubbles generated by in-situ surveys.

Mass coral bleaching due to unprecedented marine heatwave in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands).

2014 marked the sixth and most widespread mass bleaching event reported in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, home to the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), the world’s second largest marine reserve. This event was associated with an unusual basin-scale warming in the North Pacific Ocean, with an unprecedented peak intensity of around 20°C-weeks of cumulative heat stress at Lisianksi Island. In situ bleaching surveys and satellite data were used to evaluate the relative importance of potential drivers of bleaching patterns in 2014, assess the subsequent morality and its effects on coral communities and 3D complexity, test for signs of regional acclimation, and investigate long-term change in heat stress in PMNM. Surveys conducted at four island/atoll (French Frigate Shoals, Lisianski Island, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and Midway Atoll) showed that in 2014, percent bleaching varied considerably between islands/atolls and habitats (back reef/fore reef and depth), and was up to 91% in shallow habitats at Lisianski. The percent bleaching during the 2014 event was best explained by a combination of duration of heat stress measured by Coral Reef Watch’s satellite Degree Heating Week, relative community susceptibility (bleaching susceptibility score of each taxon * the taxon’s abundance relative to the total number of colonies), depth and region. Mean coral cover at permanent Lisianski monitoring sites decreased by 68% due to severe losses of Montipora dilatata complex, resulting in rapid reductions in habitat complexity. Spatial distribution of the 2014 bleaching was significantly different from the 2002 and 2004 bleaching events likely due to a combination of differences in heat stress and local acclimatization. Historical satellite data demonstrated heat stress in 2014 was unlike any previous event and that the exposure of corals to the bleaching-level heat stress has increased significantly in the northern PMNM since 1982, highlighting the increasing threat of climate change to reefs.

Latitudinal Trends and Drivers in the CO2–Carbonic Acid System of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

Abstract Emissions of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere and the consequent effects of climate change and ocean acidification on coral reef ecosystems have motivated significant interest in describing and understanding the CO2–carbonic acid system of diverse coral reef environments. Although numerous studies have been successful in monitoring reef metabolism both in the field and in the laboratory, physical and biological forcings produce distinct conditions among environments. Due to the geographic isolation and associated difficulties with measuring marine carbon chemistry in waters of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), relatively few studies have described the CO2–carbonic acid system and carbonate saturation state gradients of these waters. Yet, PMNM remains one of the largest conservation areas in the world with extensive and diverse coral reef ecosystems that could offer valuable insight into our current and future understanding about regional and global impacts of ocean acidification. In order to provide a broad overview of latitudinal trends and features of the marine carbon system in PMNM waters, continuous measurements for surface seawater fugacity of CO2 (fCO2) and pH were collected during August 2011 and July 2012 cruises of the NOAA Ship Hi’ialakai. These measurements indicate that pH and fCO2 are three times more variable in nearshore monument waters relative to open ocean transect measurements. This variability can be observed up to 50 km away from the nearest reef and is likely the result of the direct and significant impact of coral reef metabolism on marine carbon chemistry around the islands and atolls. The relationship between total alkalinity and dissolved inorganic carbon is consistent with net calcification which creates an alkalinity sink throughout PMNM waters. Additionally, our measurements show clear latitudinal trends in fCO2, pH, and aragonite saturation state that are influenced by environmental forcings, including temperature, wind speed, and residence time of the water. Collectively, our results suggest that coral reefs located at the northernmost atolls of PMNM may be the most susceptible to the adverse impacts of climate change and ocean acidification.

Bibliographic Catalogue of the Marine Benthic Algae in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)

The algal bibliographic catalogue of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) is based on previously published records for the 10 northwestern islands, atolls and shoals in the Hawaiian Archipelago, and includes, aligned from northwest to southeast, Kure Atoll (90 species), Midway Atoll (123 species), Pearl &amp; Hermes Atoll (74 species), Lisianski Island including Neva Shoals (52 species), Laysan Island (131 species), Maro Reef (79 species), Gardner Pinnacles (75 species), French Frigate Shoals including La Pérouse Pinnacle (173 species), Necker Island (118 species) and Nihoa Island (33 species). The first section (I. Classification) provides a listing of classes, orders, and families of the 148 genera reported from the PMNM. The second section (II. Species-Reference Index) provides an alphabetized listing of the 335 algal species under the four Phyla, i.e., Cyanobacteria (18 species), Rhodophyta (198 species), Ochrophyta (45 species) and Chlorophyta (74 species) with the applicable reference citations for each island, atoll or shoal. Brief notes are provided, when appropriate, for selected species. The third section (III. Island-Reference Index) provides a chronological listing of all published algal references for each respective island, atoll or shoal. The Reference section contains the complete citation for each reference.

Small-scale soundscapes over coral reef ecosystems: Latitudinal variation in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

Two-dimensional seafloor “maps” of near-field ambient sound produced by biological sources in a coral reef environment were obtained from four spur-and-groove shallow water reef environments along a latitudinal gradient in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Acoustic data were collected in conjunction with SCUBA based ecological surveys in an effort to establish correlation between components of the acoustic field and the ecological state of each field site. Simultaneous acoustic measurements and remote underwater photographs taken during the day and at night allowed for comparisons of biological activity with recordings over time. Using a bottom-mounted L-shaped array of hydrophones, the spatial distribution, frequency, and temporal characteristics of sounds produced by small-scale biological processes were estimated within a 40 m by 40 m region around the array. A fast cross-correlation guidance technique lessened the computational burden imposed by conventional and white noise constrained adaptive focusing (curved-wavefront beamforming). Likely sources of biological sound and variation of the acoustic field within and between the sample sites will be discussed. The variation of sound field properties over latitude and correlation with ecological information obtained at each site may be useful in underwater biological surveys that utilize passive acoustic recording.

Chapter Five - Understanding the Scale of Marine Protection in Hawai‘i: From Community-Based Management to the Remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

Ancient Hawaiians developed a sophisticated natural resource management system that included various forms of spatial management. Today there exists in Hawai'i a variety of spatial marine management strategies along a range of scales, with varying degrees of effectiveness. State-managed no-take areas make up less than 0.4% of nearshore waters, resulting in limited ecological and social benefits. There is increasing interest among communities and coastal stakeholders in integrating aspects of customary Hawaiian knowledge into contemporary co-management. A network of no-take reserves for aquarium fish on Hawai'i Island is a stakeholder-driven, adaptive management strategy that has been successful in achieving ecological objectives and economic benefits. A network of large-scale no-take areas for deepwater (100-400m) bottomfishes suffered from a lack of adequate data during their initiation; however, better technology, more ecological data, and stakeholder input have resulted in improvements and the ecological benefits are becoming clear. Finally, the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) is currently the single largest conservation area in the United States, and one of the largest in the world. It is considered an unqualified success and is managed under a new model of collaborative governance. These case studies allow an examination of the effects of scale on spatial marine management in Hawai'i and beyond that illustrate the advantages and shortcomings of different management strategies. Ultimately a marine spatial planning framework should be applied that incorporates existing marine managed areas to create a holistic, regional, multi-use zoning plan engaging stakeholders at all levels in order to maximize resilience of ecosystems and communities.

Locating invertebrate sound sources, including hermit crabs, on shallow water reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands using an L-shaped array of hydrophones

Using ambient noise for extracting ecological information from coastal waters is a tantalizing idea that has gained momentum with the increasing use of long-term passive recorders. Single-element hydrophone recordings from different reef locations reveal substantial variation in the biologically produced sound field, the spatial scales and sources of which are poorly understood. A seven-element L-shaped array was deployed in a spur-and-groove coral reef environment at Kure Atoll in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, in an effort to resolve small-scale spatial variability in reef-generated ambient noise. For each given time step, a fast, pair-wise coherence technique was initially used to estimate correlation in the ambient noise field. Curved-wavefront adaptive beamforming was then performed within range and azimuth windows that encompassed each estimated source location (areas of high correlation). Array processing performance was evaluated and frequency-dependent, spatiotemporal distribution of the sound field derived. The environment surrounding the array was photographically surveyed and ecologically classified through SCUBA-based observations. Survey data were used in an attempt to identify reef structures and the organisms that were the dominant contributors to the local sound field, notably hermit crabs and other hard-shelled invertebrates.

Evidence for benthic primary production support of an apex predator–dominated coral reef food web

Five hundred and ninety-nine primary producers and consumers in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) (22°N–30°N, 160°W–180°W) were sampled for carbon and nitrogen stable isotope composition to elucidate trophic relationships in a relatively unimpacted, apex predator–dominated coral reef ecosystem. A one-isotope (δ13C), two-source (phytoplankton and benthic primary production) mixing model provided evidence for an average minimum benthic primary production contribution of 65 % to consumer production. Primary producer δ15N values ranged from −1.6 to 8.0 ‰ with an average (2.1 ‰) consistent with a prevalence of N2 fixation. Consumer group δ15N means ranged from 6.6 ‰ (herbivore) to 12.1 ‰ (Galeocerdo cuvier), and differences between consumer group δ15N values suggest an average trophic enrichment factor of 1.8 ‰ Δ15N. Based on relative δ15N values, the larger G. cuvier may feed at a trophic position above other apex predators. The results provide baseline data for investigating the trophic ecology of healthy coral reef ecosystems.

Using DNA Barcoding and Standardized Sampling to Compare Geographic and Habitat Differentiation of Crustaceans: A Hawaiian Islands Example

Recently, the Census of Marine Life has explored methods to assess coral reef diversity by combining standardized sampling (to permit comparison across sites) with molecular techniques (to make rapid counts of species possible). To date, this approach has been applied across geographically broad scales (seven sites spanning the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans), focusing on similar habitats at all sites (10–12 m forereef). Here we examine crustacean spatial diversity patterns for a single atoll, comparing results for four sites (comprising forereef, backreef, and lagoon habitats) at French Frigate Shoals (FFS), Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Hawaii, USA, within the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. The Bray-Curtis index of similarity across these habitats at FFS was the same or greater than the similarity between similar habitats on Heron Island and Lizard Island in the Great Barrier Reef and much greater than similarity between more widely separated localities in the Indo-Pacific Ocean (e.g., Ningaloo, Moorea, French Polynesia or the Line Islands). These results imply that, at least for shallow reefs, sampling multiple locations versus sampling multiple habitats within a site maximizes the rate at which we can converge on the best global estimate of coral reef biodiversity.

Plastic, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, and International Misfires at a Cure

I. INTRODUCTION II. BACKGROUND A. The Current State of Pacific Ocean 1. Plastics and Their Effect on Marine Environment and Human Health 2. The Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument B. Current International Water Quality Conventions and National Ocean Water Quality Statutes III. PROPOSAL: INTERNATIONAL OCEANIC DEBRIS PREVENTION AND REDUCTION AGREEMENT IV. CONCLUSION V. APPENDIX A: MAP OF THE PAPAHANAUMOKUAKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT VI. APPENDIX B: MIGRATION OF PLASTICS IN THE GPGP OVER 10 YEARS I. INTRODUCTION Plastic and synthetic debris in oceans have a profoundly negative effect on lives of marine animals, plants, birds, and ultimately humans. As this form of pollution endangers quality of ocean water, it likewise reduces quantity of water suitable for life. (1) This has a disastrous effect on quality and quantity of resources provided by planet's oceans. One particularly chilling example of effects of plastic is found in the world's largest landfill, located in central Pacific Ocean: Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP). (2) There are currently several international treaties and agreements that target some of causes of GPGP. Nonetheless, these treaties and agreements are only as strong as laws of member states. It is up to a member state to regulate and prosecute illegal activities within its waters, or in some instances, to prosecute acts done by vessels sailing under its flag. Recognizing that [u]nregulated dumping of material into ocean waters endangers human health, welfare, and amenities, and marine environment, ecological systems, and economic potentialities, (3) United States has passed a number of statutes to prevent and remediate ocean dumping, both as a national matter and pursuant to its responsibilities under those international agreements to which it is a signatory. In spite of these bodies of law, primary cause of GPGP is ignored: land-based sources. To truly reverse course of GPGP, world's nations need to strengthen their domestic water quality and solid waste disposal laws in order to prevent introduction of plastic debris into national waterways, such as rivers, streams and canals. As will be discussed, it is these waterways that ultimately deliver vast majority of plastics to our oceans. This article will begin with an examination of current state of Pacific Ocean and its pollution levels. Specifically, causal nexus between plastic and oceanic pollutants will be discussed, with particular attention paid to Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. (4) This article will then survey national and international oceanic water quality laws and agreements already in place, and identify weaknesses and strengths of each. Finally, this article will propose possible changes to Federal Water Pollution Control Act, (5) commonly known as Clean Water Act, and Solid Waste Disposal Act, as amended by Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, (6) to halt GPGP's growth and general accumulation of plastic oceanic debris. II. BACKGROUND A. The Current State of Pacific Ocean The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is an area of marine debris concentration in North Pacific Ocean, (7) comprised of North Pacific Subtropical High (PSH), (8) which is located between California and Hawaii, and recirculation gyre, which is located off coast of Japan. (9) The PSH and recirculation gyre are connected by North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone (STCZ), (10) which is located along southern edge of an area known as North Pacific Transition Zone. (11) Within this zone, [a] huge mountain of air, which has been heated at equator ... descend[s] in a gentle clockwise rotation as it approaches North Pole. …

The Ecology of Coral Reef Top Predators in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

Coral reef habitats in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM) are characterized by abundant top-level predators such as sharks and jacks. The predator assemblage is dominated both numerically and in biomass by giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis) and Galapagos sharks (Carcharhinus galapagensis). A lower diversity of predatory teleosts, particularly groupers and snappers, distinguishes the PMNM from other remote, unfished atolls in the Pacific. Most coral reef top predators are site attached to a “home” atoll, but move extensively within these atolls. Abundances of the most common sharks and jacks are highest in atoll fore reef habitats. Top predators within the PMNM forage on a diverse range of prey and exert top-down control over shallow-water reef fish assemblages. Ecological models suggest ecosystem processes may be most impacted by top predators through indirect effects of predation. Knowledge gaps are identified to guide future studies of top predators in the PMNM.

A multiple instrument approach to quantifying the movement patterns and habitat use of tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier) and Galapagos sharks (Carcharhinus galapagensis) at French Frigate Shoals, Hawaii

We equipped individual tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier Peron and Lesueur, 1822) and Galapagos (Carcharhinus galapagensis Snodgrass and Heller, 1905) sharks with both acoustic and satellite transmitters to quantify their long-term movements in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands). Tiger sharks exhibited two broad patterns of behavior. Some individuals were detected at French Frigate Shoals (FFS) year round, whereas others visited FFS atoll in summer to forage on fledging albatross, then swam thousands of kilometers along the Hawaiian chain, or out into open ocean to the North Pacific transition zone chlorophyll front, before returning to FFS in subsequent years. These patterns suggest tiger sharks may use cognitive maps to navigate between distant foraging areas. Different patterns of spatial behavior may arise because cognitive maps are built up through individual exploration, and each tiger shark learns a unique combination of foraging sites. Galapagos shark detections were all associated with FFS, suggesting these sharks may be more resident around oceanic islands. Both Galapagos and tiger sharks primarily used the mixed layer (<100 m depth) and made occasional deeper dives through the thermocline down to 680 m. Results show reef-associated sharks utilize a wide variety of habitats ranging from shallow atoll lagoons to deep reefs and open ocean and may provide important trophic links between these habitats.

Isles of Abundance

![Figure][1] CREDIT: ADAPTED FROM MAP BY DAVID E. CHANDLER/PEW ENVIRONMENT GROUP Britain has taken another step toward designating the world's largest marine reserve around the Chagos Islands, a group of 55 coral protrusions in the Indian Ocean. The government announced the end of a 4-month public comment period on 5 March and is expected to reach a final decision by May. The Chagos contain half of the Indian Ocean's remaining healthy reefs. The waters are said to be among the cleanest on Earth, allowing corals to grow in deep water less vulnerable to global warming. The islands are located in the equatorial “tuna belt,” which hosts what a Royal Zoological Society of London report called one of the “most exploited, badly enforced fisheries in the world.” A total ban on fishing in the 544,000-square-kilometer zone, an area the size of France, would make it an even larger protected area than the current record-holder, the 360,000-km2 Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Pew Environment Group has spearheaded a 3-year campaign for creation of a Chagos reserve. It would be “literally an island of abundance in a sea of depletion,” says Pew's Jay Nelson. The islands are uninhabited except for the U.S. Navy base on Diego Garcia. Some 1500 Chagossians were deported to Mauritius in the 1970s for military security. [1]: pending:yes

Length-weight and length-length relationships of three endemic butterflyfish species (Chaetodontidae) from coral reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, USA

Summary Length–weight and length–length relationships are presented for three species of butterflyfish endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. From specimens collected within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), the weight–length relationships were determined for Chaetodon fremblii as W = 0.029SL3.17, Chaetodon miliaris as W = 0.042 SL3.00, and Chaetodon multicinctus as W = 0.029SL3.19 where weight, W, is reported in grams and standard length, SL, in centimeters. Length-frequency data and equations to calculate total length from standard length are also presented.

New bamboo coral species discovered

On 5 March, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) announced the identification of seven new species of bamboo coral discovered during a November 2007 NOAAfunded mission in the deep waters of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (previously known as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument). Six of these species may represent entirely new genera, and scientists expect to identify more new species as analysis of samples continues.