Pangolin Species Research Articles

Landscape habitat occupancy and distribution of the Wild Ground Pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in Zimbabwe’s Protected Areas (PAs)

The Smutsia temminckii is the only species of pangolin known to exist in Zimbabwe and is considered vulnerable under the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Distribution of wild S. temminckii in protected areas (PAs) and associated environmental variables are not well defined in Zimbabwe. The study sort to relate key environmental variables (Altitude, rainfall, temperature and vegetation type) to habitat occupancy and distribution of S. temminckii. Data was collected from forty-eight stations based on S.temminckii sightings historical records spanning ten years (2011-2021) done by field rangers, tourists and scientific services research personnel. A review of available literature was done from online sources and station records. A distribution map based on S. temminckii sightings across various PAs in Zimbabwe was developed for this study. Results of this study reveal that S. temminckii occupy PAs in South East low-veld areas, Northwestern Zimbabwe, Mid Zambezi Valley and Nyanga NP. No historical data on S. temminckii sighting in central PAs located in ecological regions IIa, IIb and III of Zimbabwe. Climatic conditions associated with S. temminckii distribution, except for Nyanga NP, are average temperatures above 220C and rainfall between 400mm to 900mm per annum. Landscapes ideal for S. temminckii habitat occupancy have an altitude between 262m-2000m above sea level. Associated vegetation types for habitat occupancy of S. temminckii are the Zambezian and mopane woodlands as well as montane forest grasslands mosaic of Nyanga NP. Future studies should focus on establishing distribution of S. temminckii outside PA, population status and density to inform conservation of this rare and unique species around Zimbabwe.

Illegal trade in pangolins in Nepal: Extent and network

There are two species of pangolins –Chinese (Manis pentadactyla) and Indian (M. crassicaudata) – in Nepal. Despite being one of the most illegally traded group of mammals in the world, there is scant information on pangolin trade in Nepal. We synthesized nation-wide information on pangolin seizures for 2015–2020 period to elucidate extent and network of illegal pangolin trade in Nepal. We recorded a total of 56 pangolin seizures in Nepal in 2015–2020 period. Pangolin scales were confiscated in all 56 seizures totaling to 154.12 kg along with confiscation of live and dead pangolins, and whole pangolin hide in some seizures. That amount of scales would have fetched up to $19,922 in local market and the price could reach up to $116,993 in an international black market. At least 209 pangolins could have been killed and illegally traded in Nepal between 2015 and 2020. Pangolin trade is widespread throughout Nepal with seizures recorded from almost a quarter of all 77 districts and almost third of 61 districts where pangolins are found. Most seizures occurred in country’s capital Kathmandu (n = 29). Additionally, we identified districts adjoining Kathmandu, and districts bordering Nepal-China and Nepal-India as major routes and points in pangolin trade network. A total of 95 people were involved in pangolin poaching that included local residents from 26 districts in Nepal. The pool of convicts was dominated by males and Nepali nationals between 20 and 30 years old. Most major ethnic groups in Nepal were involved in pangolin trade with the highest involvement of people from the Tamang ethnicity (36%). Presence of pangolins is reported from all 18 districts from where seizures were recorded and 26 districts from where convicts originated suggesting active involvement of locals in pangolin poaching and trafficking. We have generated baseline information on illegal pangolin trade in Nepal for 2015–2020. We expect that this information will be helpful to law enforcement agencies to curb existing pangolin trade in Nepal.

Is climate change threatening or beneficial to the habitat distribution of global pangolin species? Evidence from species distribution modeling

Global climate change caused by fossil energy consumption is strongly threatening the species diversity of mammals. In particular, changes in temperature and precipitation have affected the habitat of pangolins. Thus, we employed the MaxEnt modeling approach to simulate the potential habitat distribution of pangolins under the current climate and future climate change scenarios during 2081–2100. The habitats of the two Phataginus pangolins were mainly affected by temperature and precipitation. Conversely, geomorphological factors mainly affected the habitat of pangolins in the genus Smutsia. Under the SSP5–8.5 scenario, the habitat of Smutsia gigantea increased by 460.8 Mha, while that of Smutsia temminckii decreased by 89.4 Mha. Temperature and altitude affected the habitat of Manis crassicaudata, while vegetation coverage affected the habitat of Manis javanica. Moreover, human activities threatened the habitat of pangolins in Africa and India. However, labor transfer in southern China weakened the negative effects of human activities on the survival of pangolins in rural regions. Due to the lack of uniform intergovernmental schemes regarding global pangolin protection, the illegal pangolin trade threatens pangolin species worldwide, especially in Africa. From current to future scenarios, climate change increased the habitats of Manis crassicaudata, Manis javanica, Smutsia gigantea and Phataginus tetradactyla, while the habitats of Manis pentadactyla and Smutsia temminckii were threatened. Moreover, the total habitat area of the pantropical distribution zone in the Southern Hemisphere (26°S–33°S) decreased, mainly due to the extensive reduction in Smutsia temminckii habitat. The habitat of the pantropical zone in the Northern Hemisphere (19°N–28°N) basically remained unchanged. Increases in the habitat of the tropical distribution zone (11°S–17°N) were dominated by habitat gains for Smutsia gigantea. These findings provide scientific evidence to support global pangolin protection.

DNA analyses of large pangolin scale seizures: Species identification validation and case studies

Pangolins are the most trafficked mammal in the world, and all eight species are listed under CITES Appendix I. DNA-based wildlife forensic techniques are recognized as an important component of investigating a pangolin seizure. In particular, determining the species of pangolin in a seizure will 1) confirm the presence of pangolin to establish the legality of any trade, and 2) ensure appropriate laws are applied to their fullest extent in a prosecution. Furthermore, valuable intelligence data, such as determining the geographic provenance of samples, can be produced through analysis of pangolin seizures. Despite the immense scale of the pangolin trade, standardized wildlife forensic techniques for testing pangolin seizures are in their infancy. To address this, here, we present a standardized genetic marker suitable for species identification of all eight pangolin species, and outline practical strategies for sampling large-volume pangolin scale seizures. We assessed the repeatability, reproducibility, robustness, sensitivity and phylogenetic resolution of this species identification test. Critically, the assay was tested in four wildlife forensic laboratories involved in testing pangolins. Additionally, we demonstrated the test’s utility to conduct geographic provenance analysis of Phataginus tricuspis samples. We analysed five large-volume pangolin scale seizures in Malaysia, which elucidated key target species, poaching hotspots, and trafficking routes. Phataginus tricuspis was the most commonly identified species (88.8%) from the seizure samples, and 84.3% of these P. tricuspis individuals were likely sourced from western central Africa. We expect the implementation of the techniques presented in this paper will improve enforcement of pangolin trafficking crimes.

Successful captive breeding of a Malayan pangolin population to the third filial generation

Pangolins are threatened placental mammals distributed in Africa and Asia. Many efforts have been undertaken in the last century to maintain pangolins in captivity, but only a few of them succeeded in maintaining and keeping this species in a controlled environment. This study reports the first systematic breeding of the Critically Endangered Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) in captivity. Our captive breeding approach successfully improved the reproductive rate for both wild and captive-born female pangolins. From 2016 to 2020, we had 33 wild pangolins and produced 49 captive-born offspring spanning three filial generations. The female offspring further bred 18 offspring, of which 14 (78%) were conceived during the first time of cohabitation with males, and four offspring were conceived during the second cohabitation event, suggesting that they may practice copulation-induced ovulation. We observed that captive-born female pangolins could reach sexual maturity at 7–9 months (n = 4), and male pangolins could mate and successfully fertilise females at nine months age (n = 1). We also observed a female pangolin conceiving on the eighth day after parturition (the fifth day after the death of its pup). Our captive pangolins had a female-biased sex ratio of 1:0.5 at birth, unlike other known captive-born mammals. Also, captive-born pangolins were generally more viable after successful weaning and had a similar gestation length (~185 days) to wild pangolins. Most importantly, we report the first self-sustaining captive population of Malayan pangolins, and this species has an efficient reproduction strategy. These advances provide more comprehensive information for people to understand pangolins, and have implications for conserving endangered Malayan pangolins and providing scientific guidance to the management of other pangolin species.

Factors influencing the habitat choice of pangolins (Manis spp.) in low land of Nepal.

Pangolins in the genus Manis are nocturnal, burrowing, insectivorous mammals listed as Critically Endangered or Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Two species of pangolins are found in Nepal: the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) and Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata). Despite having high conservation priority, little attention has been given to conservation interventions of both species of pangolins found in the Terai region (low land) of Nepal. The present study assesses habitat use and factors affecting the habitat choice of pangolins in low land (Terai), Nepal, focusing on Amritdharapani Community Forest of Chitwan district. Pangolin burrows were used as the indirect signs, and opportunistic sampling method was used to record the burrows. After the identification of all occurrence sites (burrows) in the field, random points were generated excluding the points where burrows were recorded for sampling of nonoccurrence sites. A total of thirty‐nine burrows were observed at elevations ranging from 301 to 413 masl. Burrows were frequently associated with northwest aspects, gentle slope (15°–20°), moderate canopy cover (51%–75%), red‐colored soil, and acidic soils with pH 6.5–7. The burrows were most common in areas with weak human disturbance (i.e., 1,500–1,700 m from settlements), 800–1,200 m from roads, and within 300 m from a water source and within 20 m from the nearest termitarium. Distance to settlement, distance to road, soil pH, and canopy cover were found to affect the habitat choice of pangolins in the study area.

Gastrointestinal ulceration and gastritis in three wild Temmincks Ground Pangolins (Smutsia temminckii) in captive care in Zambia

Background: Wild rescued pangolins are known to adapt poorly in their captive environment where many die under rehabilitation. Gastrointestinal disease and pneumonia are the most common causes of death in pangolins. However, literature on the pathology of gastric ulcers is rare. Case presentation: The current case report describes the necropsy and histopathological evaluation of three Temminck’s pangolins that died under rehabilitation in Lusaka, Zambia. Grossly, gastric ulcerations of the fundic gland mucosae were seen in the stomachs. Inflammatory cells and erosions of fundic gastric gland mucosa were seen on histopathology. The morphological diagnosis of gastric ulceration with gastritis was attributed to stress and inappropriate diet. Conclusions: The findings are expected to increase knowledge in pangolin diseases and thus improve the conservation efforts to save the pangolin species from extinction.

A Review of the Engineering Role of Burrowing Animals: Implication of Chinese Pangolin as an Ecosystem Engineer

Ecosystem engineers are organisms that alter the distribution of resources in the environment by creating, modifying, maintaining and/or destroying the habitat. They can affect the structure and function of the whole ecosystem furthermore. Burrowing engineers are an important group in ecosystem engineers as they play a critical role in soil translocation and habitat creation in various types of environment.However, few researchers have systematically summarized and analyzed the studies of burrowing engineers. We reviewing the existing ecological studies of burrowing engineer about their interaction with habitat through five directions: (1) soil turnover; (2)changing soil physicochemical properties; (3) changing plant community structure; (4) providing limited resources for commensal animals;and/or (5) affecting animal communities. The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is a typical example of burrowing mammals, in part (5), we focus on the interspecific relationships among burrow commensal species of Chinese pangolin. The engineering effects vary with environmental gradient, literature indicates that burrowing engineer play a stronger role in habitat transformation in the tropical and subtropical areas.The most common experiment method is comparative measurements (include different spatial and temporal scale),manipulative experiment is relatively few. We found that most of the engineering effects had positive feedback to the local ecosystem, increased plant abundance and resilience, increased biodiversity and consequently improved ecosystem functioning. With the global background of dramatic climate change and biodiversity loss in recent decades, we recommend future studies should improving knowledge of long-term engineering effects on population scale and landscape scale, exploring ecological cascades through trophic and engineering pathways, to better understand the attribute of the burrowing behavior of engineers to restore ecosystems and habitat creation. The review is presented as an aid to systematically expound the engineering effect of burrowing animals in the ecosystem, and provided new ideas and advice for planning and implementing conservation management.

Digging out the keys in the heap of seized pangolin scales: up scaling pangolin conservation using wildlife forensics

Pangolins, despite banned through legislative measures, are threatened by heavy illegal poaching for the demand of meat and scales in the making of Traditional East Asian Medicines (TEAM), resulting in severe decline of the population sizes across the distribution range. Species assignment from the confiscated scales is pre-requisite to enforce the appropriate national and international law and legislations in the successful prosecution of the cases in the court of law. In the present study, we characterised the morphological features in voucher specimens of the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) and used the identified keys to establish the species identity from the confiscated scales. We investigated intra and inter genetic variations by sequencing 624 scales of pangolin for cytb gene and obtained unique haplotypes to Indian and Chinese pangolins by comparing sequences with all eight pangolin species. Scales from the voucher specimens, which varied in the size, shape and weight, were measured for morphological features to establish species signature of Indian and Chinese pangolins. The cumulative success of species assignment using morphological features from the confiscated scales was 98.33% and 100% from the large and caudal scales, respectively. The present study has generated reference signature of Indian and Chinese pangolins from the scales and facilitates the law enforcements for taking spot decision by ascertaining species identity from the seized scales.

Distribution of Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in South Africa, with evaluation of questionable historical and contemporary occurrence records

AbstractTemminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) is a threatened mammal found in southern and eastern Africa. It is the most widely distributed African pangolin species yet is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List due to a projected population decline of 30%–40% within the next three generations. This species' secretive, predominantly nocturnal behaviour and generally low population densities make it difficult to directly assess its distribution, and thus, alternative methods are required. Furthermore, many historical and some contemporary records of this species exist from outside of its accepted range, suggesting that the distribution may be greater than currently accepted, although the validity of these records has never been assessed. We used MaxEnt modelling to evaluate the most likely distribution of S. temminckii in South Africa and compared the past and present distribution of the species, as well as assessed the probable validity of the questionable records. Our results suggest that one of the questionable historical museum records is probably valid, while the other may refer to an erroneous collecting locality. At least some contemporary sightings which were originally deemed questionable are probably valid, while others should be treated as dubious until supporting information to validate their authenticity becomes available.

Understanding consumer demand for bushmeat in urban centers of Cameroon with a focus on pangolin species

AbstractBushmeat consumption remains significant in urban Central Africa. Increasing urbanization has fueled bushmeat trade and become a threat to endangered species like the pangolin. Behavioral change interventions may help reduce demand for pangolins in urban centers. However, there is still a lack of adequate locally‐specific research on consumer behavior and drivers of demand to effectively guide such interventions. Our study addressed this knowledge gap through semistructured interviews to investigate consumer preferences and bushmeat consumption habits and perceptions of 597 participants in Bertoua and Ebolowa, Cameroon. Bushmeat, in general, was positively perceived as a tasty, healthy, and luxurious item that meets cultural needs, while domestic meat was negatively perceived as an unhealthy and intensively processed product. The biggest barriers to bushmeat consumption were its illegality and high price. Pangolin was among the most desired types of bushmeat. Nearly half of pangolin consumers were willing to pay more for a pangolin meal. Despite being fully protected by national laws, pangolins were consistently found in local bushmeat markets and restaurants, suggesting the ineffectiveness in law enforcement and/or communication with the public about the legal protection and current status of pangolins. Our findings provide an understanding of sociocultural consumer behavior and drivers that can help guide bushmeat demand reduction interventions in urban centers of Cameroon.

Record of the world’s biggest pangolin? New observations of bodyweight and total body length of the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata Gray, 1827 (Mammalia: Pholidota: Manidae) from Mannar District, Sri Lanka

The Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata is one of the eight extant pangolin species in the world, occurring in the Indian subcontinent and is the solitary pangolin species recorded in Sri Lanka. Little is known about the intra-specific morphometric variations of the Indian Pangolin, largely due to the limited observations. In this note, we report the morphometrics of the largest Indian Pangolin recorded so far in its range, and consequently the largest pangolin ever to be recorded according to published information. These records along with observations from other range countries provide novel insights into the maximum growth of male Indian Pangolins.

DNA Mini-Barcodes, a Potential Weapon for Conservation and Combating Illegal Trade of Pangolin

Background Smuggling and illegal trade of pangolins and their scales has drastically reduced the wild population of pangolins. Accurate species identification is currently in urgent need as a powerful weapon for combating pangolin smuggling and trade and conserving the already endangered pangolin species. Aim of the study To develop an efficient method based on DNA mini-barcodes for accurate pangolin species identification and authentication of processed pangolin scales against the non-target species. Materials and methods The primers for amplifying the DNA mini-barcodes were designed based on cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) gene fragments. The mini-barcodes were compared with the two universal barcodes (COI and Cytb) for performance in pangolin species identification by calculating the Kimura-2-parameter (K2P) distance, assessing the clustering dendrogram, and analyzing the BLAST similarity and barcoding gap. The accuracy of the three barcodes was also compared for authentication of pangolin scales against non-target species. Results Comparison of the three barcodes showed that the mini-barcode form COI had the highest amplification success rate (100%) and high variable sites (40.0%), with the ratio of mean inter- to intraspecific distance ratio was 25 and a distinct DNA barcoding gap. In the neighbor-joining (NJ) tree constructed based on the mini-barcode regions, each species of the pangolin family formed an obvious clade respectively, and the clades were all separated from those of the non-target species, indicating that the genetic information in the mini-barcode was sufficient for species identification. Conclusion The DNA mini-barcodes based on COI gene fragments provide an effective and accurate method for identification of pangolin species and authentication of pangolin scale products.

Local Knowledge and Use of Pangolins by Culturally Diverse Communities in the Forest-Savannah Transition Area of Cameroon

Information about the presence and population status of pangolins, and the threats they face, remains limited in many parts of Cameroon, a country that is home to three species of pangolin and considered to be a global hub of pangolin trafficking. Local communities living in rural areas can provide valuable information on species presence, local uses of wildlife, and possible threats, that is useful for prioritising conservation actions. Using interview surveys in 20 villages surrounding Mbam and Djerem National Park, we investigated local peoples’ knowledge of pangolin presence, perceptions of population trends, cultural importance, consumptive and non-consumptive uses, and hunting of pangolins. Our results showed that most people recognised the white-bellied and giant pangolins, but only 10% recognised the black-bellied pangolin. Ethnolinguistic group significantly affected the likelihood of respondents recognising and having seen a pangolin before. Giant pangolin populations were perceived to be declining, particularly by older respondents. We found evidence of local use of pangolins for meat, but few respondents reported uses of scales. Cultural significance was reported by few respondents, but when it was reported it mostly referred to giant pangolin. White-bellied pangolins are reportedly hunted using bare hands for local consumption most frequently, whilst giant pangolins were mainly hunted for local consumption and income generation using wire snares. Overall, our study shows the possible value of local knowledge for planning and prioritising conservation actions for pangolins. We highlight the urgent need to monitor pangolin populations, and assess the possible impacts to pangolins from threats such as hunting.

Degradation of Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) scales with a keratinase for extraction of reproductive steroid hormones

Hormone monitoring in keratinous tissues has become increasingly popular. The insoluble keratin materials are generally pulverised before hormone extraction; however, this is difficult for thicker keratin structures like baleen plates or hooves. A new method, involving the use of keratinase, allows enzymatic digestion of keratin and hormone analysis in the resulting suspension. Pangolins are unique mammals covered in keratinous scales, which are one of the reasons these animals are extensively trafficked. This study aimed to investigate the suitability of Temminck's pangolin scales as hormone matrix for quantifying reproductive steroids. A protocol was developed to digest scales with a keratinase before measuring hormone concentrations. This method can be used to investigate the reproductive endocrinology of Temminck's pangolins but may also be extended to the other extant pangolin species.•Keratinase digests Temminck's pangolin scales and reproductive steroid metabolite concentrations are measurable in the resulting suspension.•Isopropanol is an ideal washing solvent for scales to remove surface contaminants and scale sample mass should be standardised to allow comparisons.•Any section of a scale and scales from any pangolin body region can be used as samples for hormone quantification.

Insights into the status and distribution of pangolins in Togo (West Africa)

AbstractPangolins are considered among the most threatened mammal species, both globally and also in Africa. However, almost nothing is known on their status and distribution across wide areas of their range, particularly in West African countries. Here, we assess the status and distribution of pangolin species in Togo. Fieldwork was carried out in five localities around the Fazao Malfakassa National Park, five sites around the Togodo Protected Areas Complex (Togodo North and Togodo South National Parks), ‘Les Deux Béna’ and Missahohe Forest Reserves, Yikpa‐Dzigbe, Evou and Afagnan Community Forests. In all of these protected areas and forest islands, only one pangolin species was recorded: the white‐bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis); we found no evidence of the giant ground pangolin (Smutsia gigantea), a species that now appears unlikely for Togo. Due to their nocturnal behaviour, we searched for pangolins by spotlighting and estimated their relative abundance using the Kilometric Index of Abundance. Our results show that P. tricuspis is still relatively abundant in suitable habitats in Fazao‐Malfakassa National Park, in Togodo North National Park and in the Assoukoko Forest Reserve. These habitats are dense remnant forest patches where numerous termite mounds and ant nests occur. The present study provides unprecedented information on the status of pangolins in Togo to help inform the development of a conservation programme for this species in this country.

Vitamin A deficiency and its treatment in captive Sunda pangolins.

The high incidence of disease in captive pangolins is a major obstacle in pangolin‐conservation breeding programs. Therefore, elucidating pangolins’ susceptibility to disease is the key to conservation progress. At the Pangolin Research Base for Artificial Rescue and Conservation Breeding of South China Normal University (PRB‐SCNU), vitamin A deficiency was diagnosed in 14 captive Sunda pangolins. Typical eye signs included lacrimal eyes, keratopathy and a blank, milky orb. The afflicted pangolins were treated with vitamins A and D for 15–30 days; all individuals recovered. We report the detection and treatment of vitamin A deficiency in captive Sunda pangolins at the PRB‐SCNU. Our results could provide guidance for the future prevention and treatment of vitamin A deficiency and associated diseases in pangolin species, both to reduce the incidence of these diseases in captive pangolins and to aid conservation efforts.

Molecular Genetics Supports a Potential Fifth Asian Pangolin Species (Mammalia, Pholidota, Manis).

Recently, two mitochondrial haplotypes, H4 and H8, of Manis sp. were found in two seizures in Hong Kong that do not correspond to Manis javanica, Manis pentadactyla or Manis crassicaudata of Asian pangolin species or any African pangolin species. It was proposed that both haplotypes derived from Manis culionensis, an unknown lineage of M. javanica, or a thus far unidentified Asian pangolin species (Manis sp.). To further investigate these three hypotheses, we used two mitochondrial genes of all eight known extant pangolin species and conducted phylogenetic tree reconstructions, divergence time estimation, and species delimitation analyses. All analyses consistently confirmed that these two haplotypes of Manis sp. constitute a distinct lineage, potentially representing a fifth Asian pangolin species, which originated around the Late Miocene to Early Pliocene (6.95 [4.64-9.85] million years ago). Our study provides genetic support for a potential fifth Asian pangolin species and helps to better understand species diversity of Asian pangolins, which is urgently needed for effective conservation work.

Knowledge and attitudes about the use of pangolin scale products in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) within China

Abstract All eight pangolin species are threatened with extinction, largely through demand for their products including scales, meat and body parts. The demand for pangolin scales has gained attention from many conservation groups due to the large volumes involved in illegal trade. Market demand in China is one of the major drivers for international illegal trade according to confiscation reports, and many conservation interventions have been attempted to reduce this demand. The Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) community plays a key role in regulating legal trade and combating illegal trade in pangolin scales. However, this community has been largely overlooked by previous conservation interventions directed at the pangolin scale trade. There has also been little research into the involvement of the TCM community in pangolin scale trade in China. To fill these knowledge gaps, we interviewed TCM doctors from 41 hospitals, shop owners/assistants from 90 TCM shops, two TCM wholesalers, and 2,168 members of the general public in Henan and Hainan provinces, China. Respondents' knowledge of and attitudes towards the pangolin scale trade were investigated using semi‐structured and structured questionnaires, with a total of 2,301 respondents. Our results show that TCM practitioners generally have poor awareness of the illegal nature of their behaviours and pangolin scale products involved. Awareness is particularly poor among participants at the end of the trade chain (i.e. end sellers). The public also generally lacked understanding of pangolin products in markets. Results also show that 20 (71%) of 28 doctors believed that the use of pangolin scales in at least some, if not all, treatments could be substituted by other ingredients. These findings suggest that raising awareness of the legality of pangolin scale products and petitioning TCM communities to use alternative substitutes for these products could constitute feasible and effective pangolin conservation interventions. This study provides the first insights into the knowledge of and attitudes towards the pangolin scale trade from the perspective of TCM practitioners, and suggests that collaborating with the TCM community is necessary to combat this illegal trade. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Investigation on the human coronaviruses origin (bats and pangolins): a review

A coronavirus related to SARS-CoV-2 has been isolated from Malayan pangolins illegally imported into Guangdong Province. It is not the precursor of SARS-CoV-2, but a comparison of viral genome sequences provides further evidence that the virus currently infecting humans. Bats and pangolins have been suggested as the natural reservoirs of a large variety of viruses. Some researchers have given attention to other species as the origin of coronaviruses and none have referred to bats and pangolins as the two emerging coronaviruses origin, which have caused unexpected human disease outbreaks recently. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are suggested to be originated from bats and pangolins. Numerous species of bats and pangolins in China have been observed to harbor genetically diverse SARS-like coronaviruses. Some strains are highly similar to SARS-CoV even in the spike protein and are able to use the same receptor as SARS-CoV for cell entry. Meanwhile, different coronaviruses phylogenetically related to MERS-CoV have been observed in the bats and pangolins species, some might be classified as similar to coronavirus species as MERS-CoV. Coronaviruses genetically related to human coronavirus 229E and NL63 have been found in bats and pangolins, respectively. However, intermediate hosts are suggested to play an important role in the transmission and emergence of these coronaviruses from bats and pangolins to humans. This study further documented that bats and pangolins origin of human coronaviruses are meaningful to predict and prevent a future outbreak of the deadly pandemic.