Pandemics In Human History Research Articles

The global H5N1 influenza panzootic in mammals.

Influenza A viruses (IAV) have caused more documented global pandemics in human history than any other pathogen1,2. High pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) viruses belonging to the H5N1 subtype are a leading pandemic risk. Two decades after H5N1 "bird flu" became established in poultry in Southeast Asia, its descendants have resurged3, setting off an H5N1 panzootic in wild birds that is fueled by (a) rapid intercontinental spread, reaching South America and Antarctica for the first time4,5; (b) fast evolution via genomic reassortment6; and (c) frequent spillover into terrestrial7,8 and marine mammals9. The virus has sustained mammal-to-mammal transmission in multiple settings, including European fur farms10,11, South American marine mammals12-15, and US dairy cattle16-19, raising questions about whether humans are next. Historically, swine are considered optimal intermediary hosts that help avian influenza viruses (AIV) adapt to mammals before jumping to humans20. However, the altered ecology of H5N1 has opened the door to new evolutionary pathways. Could dairy cattle, farmed mink, or South American sea lions serve as new mammalian gateways to humans? Here we explore the molecular and ecological factors driving H5N1's sudden expansion in host range and assess the likelihood of different zoonotic pathways leading to an H5N1 pandemic.

Factors affecting households food security during pandemic Covid-19

Purpose. The importance of this study is underscored by the possibility of recurring pandemics in human history. In this context, efforts to overcome or adapt to such crises, particularly in maintaining food security at the household level, become essential for sustaining human life. The study was conducted to identify and analyse the relationship between food security and various dimensions, along with the coping strategies adopted by three different food security statuses in Banten province, Indonesia. Methodology / approach. Primary data were collected from a survey of 170 households selected by stratified random sampling based on three regions with different food security status. To address the research question, regression analysis was used to develop a logistic model illustrating the relationship between independent variables, including social, economic, and demographic factors, dimensions of food security, coping strategies, and the dependent variable of household food security, as assessed by the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) score. Results. The Coping Strategy Index (CSI) variable significantly affected food security with a 99 % confidence interval. Variables such as the age of the family head, the number of family members in the household, and the Food Consumption Score (FCS) were identified to have a significant effect with a 95 % confidence interval. Meanwhile, the education level of the family head was the only independent variable found to have a significant effect at the 90 % confidence interval. Originality / scientific novelty. This research is the first study conducted in Indonesia regarding the effect of household coping strategies during the Covid-19 pandemic, dimensions of food security, socio-demographic factors on household food security status for three different regional characteristics in Banten province, Indonesia, using a logistic regression model. This model has been tested and has shown high feasibility. Practical value / implications. This study provides evidence of a significant influence of household coping strategies, household consumption scores, age of the household head, and family size. This has implications for the role of households in improving adaptation during times of crisis, particularly in acquiring quality food and meeting daily food needs. The selection of the right and quality menu can enhance the resilience and nutrition of each household member in crisis situations such as the Covid-19 pandemic. The results of these findings will also have implications for government policies related to ensuring education for all citizens, setting a minimum age for marriage, and promoting the Family Planning program to control the number of children in households.

A Complex Interplay: Navigating the Crossroads of Tobacco Use, Cardiovascular Disease, and the COVID-19 Pandemic: A WHF Policy Brief.

The Coronavirus Disease 2019, commonly referred to as COVID-19, is responsible for one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. The direct, indirect and lasting repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic on individuals and public health, as well as health systems can still be observed, even today. In the midst of the initial chaos, the role of tobacco as a prognostic factor for unfavourable COVID-19 outcomes was largely neglected. As of 2023, numerous studies have confirmed that use of tobacco, a leading risk factor for cardiovascular and other diseases, is strongly associated with increased risks of severe COVID-19 complications (e.g., hospitalisation, ICU admission, need for mechanical ventilation, long COVID, etc.) and deaths from COVID-19. In addition, evidence suggests that COVID-19 directly affects multiple organs beyond the respiratory system, disproportionately impacting individuals with comorbidities. Notably, people living with cardiovascular disease are more prone to experiencing worse outcomes, as COVID-19 often inherently manifests as thrombotic cardiovascular complications. As such, the triad of tobacco, COVID-19 and cardiovascular disease constitutes a dangerous cocktail. The lockdowns and social distancing measures imposed by governments have also had adverse effects on our lifestyles (e.g., shifts in diets, physical activity, tobacco consumption patterns, etc.) and mental well-being, all of which affect cardiovascular health. In particular, vulnerable populations are especially susceptible to tobacco use, cardiovascular disease and the psychological fallout from the pandemic. Therefore, national pandemic responses need to consider health equity as well as the social determinants of health. The pandemic has also had catastrophic impacts on many health systems, bringing some to the brink of collapse. As a result, many health services, such as services for cardiovascular disease or tobacco cessation, were severely disrupted due to fears of transmission and redirection of resources for COVID-19 care. Unfortunately, the return to pre-pandemic levels of cardiovascular disease care activity has stagnated. Nevertheless, digital solutions, such as telemedicine and apps, have flourished, and may help reduce the gaps. Advancing tobacco control was especially challenging due to interference from the tobacco industry. The industry exploited lingering uncertainties to propagate misleading information on tobacco and COVID-19 in order to promote its products. Regrettably, the links between tobacco use and risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection remain inconclusive. However, a robust body of evidence has, since then, demonstrated that tobacco use is associated with more severe COVID-19 illness and complications. Additionally, the tobacco industry also repeatedly attempted to forge partnerships with governments under the guise of corporate social responsibility. The implementation of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control could address many of the aforementioned challenges and alleviate the burden of tobacco, COVID-19, and cardiovascular disease. In particular, the implementation of Article 5.3 could protect public health policies from the vested interests of the industry. The world can learn from the COVID-19 pandemic to better prepare for future health emergencies of international concern. In light of the impact of tobacco on the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative that tobacco control remains a central component in pandemic preparedness and response plans.

Study on the fit of nonwoven face masks on different face shapes

In the midst of the global COVID-19 pandemic, airborne infectious diseases, including contagious tuberculosis and illnesses transmitted through airborne droplets, such as influenza, SARS, and avian influenza, have emerged as some of the most severe pandemics in human history. Face masks have become an essential everyday item, despite their previous use primarily for the sick. Current mask designs come in various sizes; however, they may not be suitable for all face shapes, particularly for individuals with smaller or frequently moving facial features. Therefore, there is a need for research, especially focusing on women and individuals with smaller faces, to enhance the effectiveness of face masks in providing adequate protection. Accordingly, this study examined the current typical mask design ‘normal mask’ and four proposed mask designs for five face shapes (round, diamond, oval, square, or oblong) by using a quantitative fit test, as suggested in ISO 16975-3 and OSHA 29 CFR1910.134, to determine the masks’ fit factor (FF). The FF of the normal mask was 80% on round faces, 66% on diamond faces, but only 41% on square and oblong faces. The FaceMe artificial intelligence program was used to modify the face mask design in accordance with each face shape, and the level of air leakage was evaluated. The results showed that modifying the mask edges could reduce air leakage, especially during movements. For square faces, the leakage level was reduced from 63% (normal mask) to 38% (line mask). For oblong faces, the normal mask had a leakage level of 63%, whereas wave masks reduced leaking to 34%, resulting in a reduction of almost 30%. Mask fit could also be improved by adjusting earloop tightness.

The Religious Dimensions of Epidemic Disease: Cholera, the Ghost Rite, and Missionary Medicine in Nineteenth-Century Korea.

One of the most catastrophic pandemics in human history was the repeated spread of cholera in the nineteenth century. In spite of its historical significance, few scholars have studied cholera's influence in East Asia. This paper illustrates how cholera was considered, conceptualized, and treated by Korean people prior to contact with North American medical missionaries in 1885. In particular, the article compares the government-ordered public health measures during the Joseon dynasty, focusing on the "ghost rite" performed during outbreaks of epidemic disease with the work of medical missionaries in the late nineteenth century. This study finds that even after the introduction of Western biomedicine, the Korean people persisted with a religious-based etiology of cholera and other infectious diseases until the twentieth century.

Lessons should be learned: Why did we not learn from the Spanish flu?

COVID-19 has become a global pandemic that has affected millions of people worldwide. The disease is caused by the novel coronavirus that was first reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The virus is highly contagious and can spread from person to person through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, or breathes. The symptoms of COVID-19 include fever, cough, and shortness of breath, and in severe cases, it can lead to respiratory failure, pneumonia, and death. The Spanish flu, caused by the H1N1 influenza virus, and the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 are two of the most significant global health crises in history. While these two pandemics occurred almost a century apart and are caused by different types of viruses, there are notable similarities in their impact, transmission, and public health responses. Here are some key similarities between the Spanish flu and SARS-CoV-2. The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919 stands as one of the deadliest pandemics in human history, claiming the lives of an estimated 50 million people worldwide. Its impact reverberated across continents, leaving behind a legacy of devastation and lessons that, unfortunately, seem to have been forgotten or ignored over time. Despite the advancements in science, medicine, and public health in the intervening century, humanity found itself facing a strikingly similar situation with the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, amidst the search for effective measures to combat COVID-19, novel approaches such as iodine complexes, such as Iodine-V has emerged as potential interventions, reflecting the ongoing quest for innovative solutions to mitigate the impact of pandemics. This raises the poignant question: why did we not learn from the Spanish flu?

PROBLEMS OF SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATION OF THE UNEMPLOYED IN QUARANTINE CONDITIONS

The article provides a comprehensive theoretical, methodological and applied approach to the study of the features of the social and psychological adaptation of the unemployed in quarantine conditions. The introduction of the self-isolation regime and the transition of many organizations and institutions to remote or remote work has shaken the economic situation in the world, including in Ukraine. Being in a situation of uncertainty for a long time has become a challenge for many people, including the unemployed. We know about epidemics and pandemics in human history. However, there are few psychological studies in this field. Therefore, studying the problems of socio- psychological adaptation of the unemployed to new living conditions and providing psychological recommendations is particularly relevant. The purpose of the article is to study some socio psychological problems of adaptation of the unemployed in quarantine conditions. The following methods were used: diagnostic method of social and psychological adaptation; test of meaningful orientations; a method of self-assessment research. The results of the study indicate that as a result of job loss, personal characteristics, and stress factors, the unemployed have impaired socio-psychological adaptation. They experience a crisis of the meaning of life, and it manifests itself more acutely in men. In a situation of unemployment, a person is transformed as a subject of both professional activity and integral life activities. It was found that the loss of a job is perceived not only as a break in ties with the working environment that a professional needs, but also as a loss of the ability to build an individual life path. The topic under study is quite new and poorly developed and requires further detailed research and improvement of methods of psychological correction of the unemployed person's personality.

Infection and outcome of COVID-19 affected patients during 1st and 2nd waves in Bangladesh: a hospital based comparative study

Background: COVID-19 emerged as one of the worst pandemics in human history in December 2019. Despite a relatively low infection rate in Bangladesh for seven weeks from mid-January, there were still 287 deaths in February, marking the lowest monthly death toll since May 2020. This study aimed to analyze the infection and outcomes of COVID-19 patients during the first and second waves in Bangladesh. Methods: This cross-sectional observational comparative study conducted at the Popular medical college hospital, 190 COVID patients were enrolled during the first wave (Mid-June to Mid-August 2020), and 179 COVID patients were enrolled during the second wave (Mid-March to Mid-April 21). Result: Mean age was 52.85±15.36 years in the first wave and 55.42±14.20 years in the second wave (p=0.097). Male patients predominated in both waves (p=0.082). Common symptoms, such as fever, cough, and respiratory distress, were similar. The second wave had a higher percentage of patients with diabetes. CRP levels increased in the first wave, while D-dimer levels were higher in the second wave. HRCT reports indicated minimal COVID-19 involvement. Most patients were discharged, with a small percentage referred to higher centers, and the mortality rate was not significant (p=0.600). Conclusions: The study highlights the differences in various factors related to COVID-19 between the first and second waves of COVID-19 in Bangladesh. Although the demographic status was similar in both waves, it provides valuable insights for medical consultations.

New Advances and Perspectives of Influenza Prevention: Current State of the Art

The modern world, swaddled in the benefits of civilization, has fostered the development of science and the introduction of products of technological progress. This has allowed serious individual health problems, including those associated with viral diseases, to become targets for prophylaxis, treatment, and even cure. Human immunodeficiency viruses, hepatitis viruses, coronaviruses, and influenza viruses are among the most disturbing infectious agents in the human experience. Influenza appears to be one of the oldest viruses known to man; these viruses were among the first to cause major epidemics and pandemics in human history, collectively causing up to 0.5 million deaths worldwide each year. The main problem in the fight against influenza viruses is that they mutate constantly, which leads to molecular changes in antigens, including outer membrane glycoproteins, which play a critical role in the creation of modern vaccines. Due to the constant microevolution of the virus, influenza vaccine formulas have to be reviewed and improved every year. Today, flu vaccines represent an eternal molecular race between a person and a virus, which neither entity seems likely to win.

The Immune Ghosts of Pandemics Past

Klunk J, Vilgalys TP, Demeure CE, et al. Evolution of immune genes is associated with the Black Death. Nature 2022;611:312–319. Our immune system exists to protect us from the external environment and specifically from the complex threat posed by microbial pathogens. It is well-known that microbes have rapidly evolved to either avoid, adapt, or co-opt host biology to survive and multiply. Conversely, infectious diseases are postulated to provide a strong selective pressure driving human genetic evolution, with exposure to pathogens driving immune system adaptation. However, exactly how and which specific loci and related immune genes have changed in response to a specific pathogen and functionally connecting signatures to protection or susceptibility in human populations has proved to be a challenging problem. The recent study by Klunk et al sets out to identify specific genes that may have directly evolved because of pathogen-induced selective pressure. To achieve this, they looked back at one of the most devastating pandemics in human history—the Black Death caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, which killed an estimated 30%–50% of the population in Europe. In a remarkable feat of molecular archeology, the study team identified human remains in two closely related European populations, in London and Denmark, devastated by the Black Death. To identify potential loci significantly selected for by this devastating disease, they obtained DNA samples from people who died before, during, and after the pandemic at various burial sites around London. After targeted DNA sequencing of a curated list of immune system genes and loci along with neutral regions of the genome as reference, they first verified that the pandemic did indeed induce a significant selection pressure on the immune system, with the identification of 245 significantly altered variants. After further filtering based on allele frequency patterns before and after the pandemic, they identified 35 potential target loci. Using their identified Denmark cohort to cross-validate these variants they eventually settled on 4 significant and validated loci related to 6 immune genes that potentially conferred either susceptibility or protection from Y. pestis infection. Although all 4 loci suggested interesting potential functional consequences, the clearest candidate was a putatively protective variant close to the gene ERAP2, an aminopeptidase important for antigen presentation, viral clearance, and cytokine responses and a known risk factor for Crohn’s disease. The study team went on to conduct a series of functional studies in monocyte-derived macrophages comparing the ERAP2 gene haplotype selectively favored by Y. pestis infection against the alternative deleterious prepandemic haplotype. Here, they found that macrophages from individuals possessing the selected ERAP2 allele exhibit a different cytokine response to Y. pestis infection and are better able to limit replication in cells, providing a functional corelate for the evolved host response. This study represents a wonderful journey into the history of the biological “arms race” between our immune system and the microbial environment, identifying some the specific changes brought about by a global disease pandemic. These findings illuminate our understanding of our immune responses to pathogens and highlight the evolution of immune system components such as ERAP2, CTLA4, and ICOS, which are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases including Crohn’s disease and autoimmune enteropathies. The study is also highly prescient in the setting of the global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, and the current, likely highly accelerated, evolution of our immune system.

Viral Zoonotic Diseases of Public Health Importance and Their Effect on Male Reproduction

Zoonotic diseases occur as a result of human interactions with animals with the inadvertent transmission of pathogens from one to another. Zoonoses remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality among human populations, as they have been a source of pandemics in human history. Viral zoonoses account for a significant percentage of pathogens of zoonotic sources, posing a huge risk to men’s general health and fertility. This review identifies the existing knowledge on the effects of viral zoonotic diseases on male fertility. Evidence from reviewed articles showed that viral zoonotic diseases elicit an immune reaction that induces inflammatory mediators and impairs testicular functions such as spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis, leading to abnormal semen parameters that lead to subfertility/infertility. Although most zoonotic viruses linger in semen long after recovery, their presence in semen does not directly translate to sexual transmission. There is a need to further delineate the possible risk of the sexual transmission of these diseases. While a few of the viral zoonotic diseases discussed have been well-studied, there is a need to place attention on others so as to fully understand their effects on male reproduction and therefore take the right steps towards preserving male fertility.

ГРАДОСТРОИТЕЛЬСТВО ПОСЛЕ ПАНДЕМИИ: ВИДЕНИЕ И НАПРАВЛЕНИЕ

The principles of the urban formation have always been built on socialization, the construction of public spaces and the systematization of the huge human masses’ interaction. Of course, in the formation of urban space there are objects that allowing you to feel solitude, but still the city has always been a place of interaction. But the COVID-19 pandemic has changed modern views of the urban environment. The article discusses the relevance of urban development in a pandemic situation. Examples of city development after pandemics in human history are given. It is considered how the COVID-19 coronavirus has changed the understanding of the organization of urban space and human housing. Possible options for changing the conditions of the urban area are analyzed. This research tries to review developed factors of the urban area under the influence of epidemics and their consequences, among which there may be changes in the organization of public spaces on a scale from specific urban are to global solution.

A modern view on the prevention and treatment of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is now considered one of the most global pandemics in human history. Despite the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), HIV-1 infection is often accompanied by the development of CNS disorders, including neurocognitive disorders. The use of etiologic therapy has successfully prevented many of the possible terminal complications of the disease, but as patient survival time increases, the prevalence of cognitive impairment among AIDS patients is increasing. Theclinical manifestations of these disorders can rapidly progress from subtle attention deficits and behavioral disorders to the development of dementia. Diagnosing neurocognitive impairment in HIV-infected patients is usually difficult and requires consistent diagnostic procedures from the clinician, including initial screening and, if necessary, neuropsychiatric testing and neuroimaging. Early diagnosis and correction of neurocognitive impairment in HIV-infected individuals with adequate antiretroviral therapy is essential for successful treatment. The review also considers the use of drugs for the prevention and treatment of neurocognitive impairment, taking into account the peculiarities of persistence of the pathogen in the nervous system and the capabilities of modern medicine. One of the most promising methods of supporting therapy for such disorders is the delivery of antiretroviral drugs using various nanosystems (polymeric nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, nanogels, magnetic particles).

Gene amplification acts as a molecular foothold to facilitate cross-species adaptation and evasion of multiple antiviral pathways.

Cross-species spillover events are responsible for many of the pandemics in human history including COVID-19; however, the evolutionary mechanisms that enable these events are poorly understood. We have previously modeled this process using a chimeric vaccinia virus expressing the rhesus cytomegalovirus-derived protein kinase R (PKR) antagonist RhTRS1 in place of its native PKR antagonists: E3L and K3L (VACVΔEΔK + RhTRS1). Using this virus, we demonstrated that gene amplification of rhtrs1 occurred early during experimental evolution and was sufficient to fully rescue virus replication in partially resistant African green monkey (AGM) fibroblasts. Notably, this rapid gene amplification also allowed limited virus replication in otherwise completely non-permissive human fibroblasts, suggesting that gene amplification may act as a 'molecular foothold' to facilitate viral adaptation to multiple species. In this study, we demonstrate that there are multiple barriers to VACVΔEΔK + RhTRS1 replication in human cells, mediated by both PKR and ribonuclease L (RNase L). We experimentally evolved three AGM-adapted virus populations in human fibroblasts. Each population adapted to human cells bimodally, via an initial 10-fold increase in replication after only two passages followed by a second 10-fold increase in replication by passage 9. Using our Illumina-based pipeline, we found that some single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) which had evolved during the prior AGM adaptation were rapidly lost, while thirteen single-base substitutions and short indels increased over time, including two SNPs unique to human foreskin fibroblast (HFF)-adapted populations. Many of these changes were associated with components of the viral RNA polymerase, although no variant was shared between all three populations. Taken together, our results demonstrate that rhtrs1 amplification was sufficient to increase viral tropism after passage in an 'intermediate species' and subsequently enabled the virus to adopt different, species-specific adaptive mechanisms to overcome distinct barriers to viral replication in AGM and human cells.

Genetic adaptations to SIV across chimpanzee populations.

Central and eastern chimpanzees are infected with Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) in the wild, typically without developing acute immunodeficiency. Yet the recent zoonotic transmission of chimpanzee SIV to humans, which were naïve to the virus, gave rise to the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which causes AIDS and is responsible for one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Chimpanzees have likely been infected with SIV for tens of thousands of years and have likely evolved to reduce its pathogenicity, becoming semi-natural hosts that largely tolerate the virus. In support of this view, central and eastern chimpanzees show evidence of positive selection in genes involved in SIV/HIV cell entry and immune response to SIV, respectively. We hypothesise that the population first infected by SIV would have experienced the strongest selective pressure to control the lethal potential of zoonotic SIV, and that population genetics will reveal those first critical adaptations. With that aim we used population genetics to investigate signatures of positive selection in the common ancestor of central-eastern chimpanzees. The genes with signatures of positive selection in the ancestral population are significantly enriched in SIV-related genes, especially those involved in the immune response to SIV and those encoding for host genes that physically interact with SIV/HIV (VIPs). This supports a scenario where SIV first infected the central-eastern ancestor and where this population was under strong pressure to adapt to zoonotic SIV. Interestingly, integrating these genes with candidates of positive selection in the two infected subspecies reveals novel patterns of adaptation to SIV. Specifically, we observe evidence of positive selection in numerous steps of the biological pathway responsible for T-helper cell differentiation, including CD4 and multiple genes that SIV/HIV use to infect and control host cells. This pathway is active only in CD4+ cells which SIV/HIV infects, and it plays a crucial role in shaping the immune response so it can efficiently control the virus. Our results confirm the importance of SIV as a selective factor, identify specific genetic changes that may have allowed our closest living relatives to reduce SIV’s pathogenicity, and demonstrate the potential of population genomics to reveal the evolutionary mechanisms used by naïve hosts to reduce the pathogenicity of zoonotic pathogens.

CDLX: An Efficient novel approach for COVİD detection lung x-rays throw transfer learning based on State of the art deep learning image classification models

When compared to the general population, lung cancer patients have a higher incidence of COVID-19 infection, pulmonary problems, and poorer survival results. As a reference for prioritising cancer care issues during the epidemic, the world's main professional organisations issued new recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of lung cancer patients. In today's world, we are fighting one of the greatest pandemics in human history, known as COVID-2019, which is caused by a coronavirus. The patient can be treated promptly if the infection is detected early (before it enters the lower respiratory tract). To observe ground-glass opacity in the chest X-ray due to fibrosis in the lungs once the virus has reached the lungs. Artificial intelligence techniques can be utilised to detect the presence and degree of illness based on the major discrepancies between X-ray images of an infected and non-infected person. For this study, I employed feature extraction from Transfer Learning, which entails importing a pre-trained CNN model, such as Distributed Deep Convolutional VGGNet or Distributed Deep Convolutional with ResNet Model, and changing the last layer to meet my needs.

Pandemics in Human History: A Study of Origin, Enormity, Mortality Rate and Controlling Strategies

With the advent of time, the human population has augmented and so have the transmittable diseases, but not every disease can be branded with the title of being a pandemic. A pandemic is principally an outbreak of a disease affecting a significantly large geographical area and marks the destruction of all life forms. Throughout history, mankind has been afflicted with, and endured several pandemics. These pandemics had various underlying impacts on both social as well as the economic aspects of the affected nations. From devastatingly high death toll to economic collapses, a pandemic causes a plethora of unpropitious effects. But sometimes, the aftermath of a pandemic can also have a positive outcome e like breakthroughs in the field of medicine, immunization and antimicrobial cures, the fact that, the concept of a vaccine was conceived as a repercussion of the smallpox pandemic, is the best example to reinforce this statement. In previous research papers different authors have inculcated distinct methodologies and although these papers were structured immaculately, they lack in terms of information as these papers focus on specific diseases and discuss parameters like death rate, mode of transmission etc. pertaining to those particular pandemics only. This paper on the other hand outlines the most prominent and noteworthy outbreaks (in terms of destruction to life, property and economy) and will help the reader to attain a comprehensive and unobstructed idea about the major pandemics, which have occurred throughout the history. It also provides an in-depth understanding about their timeline, origins, mortality rate and coping strategies as well.

Of Pandemic and Life’s Propositions

The COVID-19 pandemic that has raged across the world since late 2019 is unprecedented on many grounds. Like previous pandemics, it has been widespread spatially and temporally. Like all pandemics in recorded history, it has also brought disease and death to millions. However, the nature of the virus and its adaptability to different environmental and climactic conditions have been unlike other pandemics in human history. With time, the virus has undergone mutation at multiple levels, and the extent of mutation is not fully known. This pandemic is no longer just a medical disease; it has evolved into a social malaise. Stigmas are associated with the disease as the pandemic has exposed the simmering fissures in human society and human relationships. As a consequence, the imprints left behind by the novel coronavirus in the lives of people are multidimensional and constantly evolving.Three recent essays—“Paravictorianism: Mary Shelley and Viral Sovereignty,” by Anjuli Fatima Raza Kolb; “The Logic of the In-visible: Decolonial Reflections on the Change of Epoch,” by Walter D. Mignolo; and “Thinking through the Pandemic: A Symposium”—explore the multifarious and multidimensional nature of the COVID-19 pandemic across different planes of human existence. The pandemic has influenced a change in the perception of history and of the ways humans perceive themselves and their positionality in the world. For the first time, in uncountable years, humans, despite their “sophisticated biomedical infrastructures,” have found themselves at the mercy of a disease whose cure is not fully ascertained.1 “Thinking through the Pandemic” explores the near-surreal experience of this pandemic. It has fueled human imagination in ways nobody could have envisaged and has generated a new language register that will be a part of everyday human communication for years. The abundance of information on the pandemic has left people overwhelmed and in turn has influenced them psychologically and emotionally. All three essays touch on this psychosocial impact of the pandemic on human society.Human happiness has also been altered. With the pandemic and subsequent lockdowns—total and partial—in different parts of the world for different stretches of time, digital dependence has increased across all age groups and on all fronts, from education to commerce to observation of customs and rituals. Both physical distancing and greater reliance on digital connection have left people more isolated. Working from home has blurred lines between personal and professional spaces, and the virtual has become the real as the term normal has acquired a whole new range of meaning. The culture of digital dependence due to the pandemic has also adversely affected individual self-worth and increased individuals’ aggression and frustration.Kolb’s essay on the diplomatic tensions between Indonesia and the World Health Organization in 2006 over a naturally occurring viral flu that was linked to the war on terror explores how a pandemic can reaffirm racial stereotypes and facilitate religious or racial suppression. Kolb’s essay examines the institutionalization of a viral pandemic in the context of nineteenth-century literary studies as the transitions of “a viral pandemic, climate change, racial capital, corporate kleptocracy, industrial agriculture, neoimperialism” are directed in favor of the privileged classes—racial, ethnic, socioeconomic.2Kolb’s observations bring us to the question of modernity, particularly of the West. Complicated by geopolitical tensions and turmoil in the global economy, the pandemic has exposed the inequalities that exist in the modern world. We are on the cusp of a “change of epoch,” despite the apprehension and fear about the pandemic, Mignolo warns. In the new epoch familiar notions are increasingly defamiliarized, he explains. This includes Western notions of modernity and the temporal linearity of modernity. Mignolo raises the question not of how a war is waged against the disease but of how we can defend ourselves and “of the sickness of a civilization that cannot imagine any other way to deal with the nightmare.”3 For Mignolo, the COVID-19 pandemic raises questions that can be seen as marking the end of the epoch of Western hegemony and the colonizing of the mind. Agreeing with Mignolo, Kolb, and the symposium contributors, all we can say with certainty is that this pandemic has altered the perception and propositions of human life forever.

The urgency of wider adoption of one health approach for the prevention of a future pandemic

Recurring outbreaks of emerging and re-emerging zoonoses serve as a reminder that the health of humans, animals, and the environment are interconnected. Therefore, multisectoral, transdisciplinary, and collaborative approaches are required at local, regional, and global levels to tackle the ever-increasing zoonotic threat. The ongoing pandemic of COVID-19 zoonosis has been posing tremendous threats to global human health and economies. The devastation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic teaches us to adopt a "One Health Approach (OHA)" to tackle a possible future pandemic through a concerted effort of the global scientific community, human health professionals, public health experts, veterinarians and policymakers through open science and open data sharing practices. The OHA is an integrated, holistic, collaborative, multisectoral, and transdisciplinary approach to tackle potential pandemic zoonotic diseases. It includes expanding scientific inquiry into zoonotic infections; monitoring, and regulating traditional food markets, transforming existing food systems, and incentivizing animal husbandry and legal wildlife trade to adopt effective zoonotic control measures. To adopt an OHA globally, research and academic institutions, governments and non-government sectors at the local, regional, and international levels must work together. This review aimed to provide an overview of the major pandemics in human history including the COVID-19, anthropogenic drivers of zoonoses, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) reverse zoonoses, the concept of OHA and how an OHA could be utilized to prevent future pandemic threats to the human-animal-ecosystem interfaces. In addition, this review article discusses the strategic framework of OHA and possible challenges to implement OHA in practice to prevent any future pandemics. The practices of open data sharing, open science, and international collaboration should be included in the OHA to prevent and/or rapidly tackle any health emergencies in the future.

Exploring Data and Literature Currently Available on the COVID-19 Vaccines.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been labeled one of the most lethal pandemics in human history. As a result, there has been a high level of urgency throughout the world to establish successful vaccinations to subdue the effects of the virus and return to a level of normalcy. This study aims to investigate the different COVID-19 vaccines available both in the United States and across the globe. Through exploration of how the vaccines were developed, how they elicit immunity, their efficacy, and their safety profiles, this review has the goal of increasing the amount of knowledge regarding the vaccines available to combat SARS-CoV-2, while also providing an epidemiological and biostatistical approach to interpreting acquired data available on the vaccines.